THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 


PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 

MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


NAVAL  HYGIENE. 


EXTRACT  OF  A  LETTER  FROM  DR.  R.  T.  C.  SCOTT,  ASSISTANT 
MEDICAL  DIRECTOR-GENERAL,  R.  N. 


"  I  cannot  adequately  express  the  great  value  I  attach  to  the 
work  of  Dr.  Wilson,  on  Xaval  Hygiene,  which  you  have  been 
so  kind  as  to  send  to  me,  for  it  completely  supplies  a  M-ant  which 
has  been  long  felt,  not  less  in  our  own  service  than  in  yours, 
and  I  sincerely  trust  that  cither  the  original  edition,  or  one  re- 
printed in  this  country,  may  be  supplied  to  every  medical  officer 
in  our  IS'aval  and  Mercantile  Marine  Servjow  ^;-./;;:,  '  ...'    • 

"  The  representations  of  tropical  fruits  are  no  less  faithful  than 
beautiful."  ..  '' 

To  Surgeon-General  Wm.  Maxwell;  Wood,  U.  S.  N. 


NAVAL  HYGIENE. 


HUMAN     HEALTH 


MEANS  OF  PREVENTING  DISEASE. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  INCIDENTS  PRINCIPALLY  DERIVED  FROM 
NAVAL  EXPERIENCE. 


BY 

^^SffiPH  WILSON,  M.D., 


DIRECTOR  U.  S.  NAVY, 


EDITION. 


WITH   COLORED    LITHOGRAPHS,    ETC. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

LINDSAY    &    BLAKISTON. 

1879- 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  tlie  year  1879, 
By  Joseph  Wilson, 
in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington,  D.  C. ; 
all  rights  reserved. 


SHKKMAN  A  CO.,  PRINTKUS. 


1^"^^ 
8'c^^' 


PREFACE. 


The  plan  and  object  of  this  work  have  not  materially  changed. 

Not  intended  exclusively  for  the  use  of  medical  officers,  it  has 
been  found  very  useful  in  imparting  information  to  others,  to 
whom,  in  many  contingencies,  questions  of  vital  importance  must 
eventually  be  referred.  Thus  the  business  of  the  medical  officer 
is  greatly  facilitated.  "A  little  knowledge"  is  found  to  be  a 
very  good  thing,  the  more  of  it  the  better ;  it  is  so  very  much 
better  than  mere  ignorance. 

A  few  botanical  illustrations  have  been  added,  selected  partly 
from  Pereira,  some  of  the  poisonous  plants  from  Fonssagrives  ; 
and  their  elegant  appearance  is  principally  due  to  the  good  taste 
of  Mr.  Hugo  Siebold. 

Some  important  reforms,  previously  insisted  on,  have  been  so 
far  accomplished,  that  it  is  thought  convenient  at  present  to  be 
very  brief  in  their  discussion.  This  affords  an  opportunity  to  in- 
troduce important  new  matter,  without  too  much  increasing  the 
size  of  the  volume. 

HOLMESBURG,    PHILADELPHIA, 
January,  1879. 


iVi35eG50 


KXTllACT  FROM  THK 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


The  present  work  was  prepared  for  publication,  ^ith  tlic  hope 
of  being  useful  to  some  of  those  who  are  so  situated,  that  their 
conduct  may  have  great  influence  in  the  preservation  of  human 
health. 

Such  are  the  captains  of  ships  on  long  voyages,  who,  without 
such  information  as  we  have  attempted  to  give,  are  liable  to 
destroy  the  health  and  consequent  efficiency  of  their  ship's  com- 
pany, by  ignorance  or  inattention  to  some  apparently  insignificant 
circumstance,  which  they  may  easily  understand. 

As  the  work  is  not  intended  exclusively  for  the  professional 
reader,  it  was  necessary  to  keep  within  the  compass  of  a  moderate 
sized  volume,  and  to  avoid  subjects  too  abstruse  or  too  technical 
for  the  general  reader.  I  have  tried  to  discuss  intelligibly,  and 
as  fully  as  consistent  with  the  general  plan,  the  leading  principles 
of  hygienic  management. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
iNTRODttCTORY, 13 

Chapter  1. — The  outfit — The  ship, 17 

II. — Drainage — Pumps — Bilge-water — Iron  ships — Paint,      .     .     23 

III. — Receiving  the  Crew — Man  overboard, 31 

IV.— The  sea— Rolling  and  Pitching 39 

V. — Seasickness 42 

YI. — Social  influence — Nostalgia, 46 

VII.— Clothing— Small  stores, 50 

VIII.— Food— The  ration, 55 

IX. — Arrangement  of  meals — Nuti-ition  in  general, 66 

X. — Drink:    Rain    water — River    water — Spring    water — Well 

water — Poisonous  water, 71 

XL — Purifying  and  preserving  water, 78 

XII. — Alcoholic  and  vinous  drinks — Rum, 83 

XIII. — Other  drinks — Aromatic — Acidulous — Farinaceous,    ...     89 

XIV. — The  preservation  of  food, 94 

XV. — Zoology  :  Carnivorants  —  Pachyderms — Ruminants  — Ceta- 
ceans — •  Birds  —  Reptilians  —  Fish  —  MoUusks  —  Articu- 
lates—Radiates,       103 

XVI. — Botany — Polypelatous  Exogens :  Ranunculacese,  Magnoli- 
acese,  Anonacea?,  Sarraceniacese,  Papaveraceje,  Crucifera?, 
Capparidacetie,  Malvaceae,  Aurantiaceoe,  Geraniaceae, 
Anacardiacese,  Vitacese,  Leguminosse,  Rosacea^,  Myrtaceae, 
Cactaceae,  Passifloraceae,  Cucurbitaceae,  Umbellifera?,    .     .119 

Monopelatous  Exogens :  Rubiaceae,  Loganiaceae,  Apo- 
cyneae  and  Asclepiadaceae,  Compositse,  Lobeliaceae, 
Ericaceae,     Scrophulariaceae,     Labiatae,     Convolvulaceae, 

vSolanacefe, 131 

Apetalous  Exogens :  Lauraceae,  Euphorbiacefe,    .     .     .  140 
Gymnosperm  Exogens :  Coniferae,  Cycadaceae,      .     .     .145 

Spadiceous  Endogens :  Palmaceas,  Araceae, 145 

Petaloid      Endogens :       Bromeliaceae,      Dioscoreaceae, 

Liliaceae,  Melanthaceae, 147 

Glumaceous  Endogens :  Grasses, 149 

Cryptogamia :  Poisonous  plants, 149 

XVII. — Vera  Cruz — Liberty  on  shore — Habits, 151 

XVIII. — Ventilation — Cleaning, 155 

XIX. — Quarantine — Homeward  bound — Sudden  changes  of  Climate,  165 


X  NAVAL    iiv<ai:NE. 

PAGE 

C'liAl'TEit  XX.— Preparations  for  battle— Transportulion  of  wounded — 
Accidents  from  tircarma — Moutlis  of  the  Mississippi- 
Fresh  provisions — Curapoa, 170 

XXI. — Special  hygiene — Epidemics, 177 

XXII. — Endemics — Malarial  fevers, 183 

XXIII.— Yellow  fever, 194 

XXIV.— Scorbutus, 200 

XXV. — Other  endemics:  Plica  polonica — Bronchocele— Cre- 
tinism— Elephantiasis  arabum — Cholera  infantum — 
Milk    sickness — Guinea    worm — Trichinosis — Taran- 

tismus,   .     .     .    ' 207 

XXVI. — Contagious  diseases— Small-pox— Measles— Syphilis,  .     .215 

XXVIL— Typhus  fever, 221 

XXVIIL— Typhoid  fever— Erysipelas— Puerperal  fever,     ....  226 

XXIX. — Various  theories, 230 

XXX. — Surinam — Maranham — Homeward  bound — Statistics  of 
disease — Prisons — Discipline — Rewards  and  Punish- 
ments,     236 

Appendix. — Weights  and  Measures, 247 

List  of  Authorities, 259 

Vocabulary, 261 

Index, 265 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


No.  1.  Spirit  room, ^9  Page  20 

2.  Floor  of  Steamship 10  20 

3.  Floor  of  Ship, 17  24 

4.  Floor  of  badly-forraed  slii]) 18  25 

5.  Flannel  bandage, 56  52 

6.  Cranberries, 69  60 

7.  Teapot  with  strainer 71  61 

8.  Water  filter, 93  78 

9.  Aerator  for  distilled  water, 96  81 

10.  Salad  Garden, 119  102 

11.  Anona  squamosa, -  .  161  122 

12.  Anona  tripelata,  Clierimoya, 164  123 

13.  Cassuvium  pomiferum, 175  127 

14.  Citrullus  colocynthis, 188  130 

15.  Apocynum  cannabinum, 191  132 

16.  Apocynum  androstemifolium, 192  133 

17.  Spigelia  marilandica, 193  134 

18.  Solanum,  Bachelor's  Pear, 204  139 

19.  Ricinus  communis, 209  141 

20.  Jatropha  manihot, 209  142 

21.  Hippomane  manjanilla 210  143 

22.  Hura  crepitans, 210  144 

23.  Ceroxylon  audicola, 213  145 

24.  Arum  triphyllum, 213  146 

25.  Dioscorea  alata.  Yam, 215  147 

26.  Ventilation  by  one  hatch, 224  155 

27.  Ventilation  of  sailing  ships, 226  158 

28.  Ventilation  of  steamships, 228  160 

29.  Fan  for  ventilation, 231  103 

30.  Surgeon's  haversack, 240  170 

31.  Ambulance  cot, 241  172 

32.  Hand-litter  for  cai'rying  the  wounded  beyond  musket  range,  241  172 

33.  Mouths  of  the  Mississippi, .  244  174 

34.  Anchorage  in  a  river, 255  188 


LITHOGRAPHS. 


Sour  sop, §162  Page  122 

Pitava, 186  130 

Pawpaw, 189  131 

Avigato, 205  140 


INTRODUCTORY. 


Hygiene  treats  of  the  means  of  preservinjy  human  licalth. 

Health  is  the  regular  action  of  the  bodily  organism,  nnd(>r  the 
influence  of  the  forces  of  the  universe  upon  the  material  Avorkl, 
by  which  we  are  surrounded. 

Heat,  light,  and  electricitry  are  the  principal  forces  constantly 
present  to  our  thoughts.  These  are  probably  modes  of  motion  in  a 
material  that  pervades  the  universe,  as  far  as  the  most  distant  visi- 
ble star,  as  incomjiressible  as  water,  and  many  thousands  of  times 
lighter  than  hydrogen.  We  must  wait  for  some  future  Newton 
or  Ampere,  to  demonstrate  and  reduce  to  more  simple  formulae, 
more  of  the  characters  of  these  forces — the  proj^erties  of  this  all- 
pervading  form  of  matter.  Besides  their  controlling  influence 
on  climate,  we  are  familiar  with  their  controlling  power  over 
health  and  life  in  many  ways.  We  may  be  injured  or  killed  by 
lightning ;  we  may  be  burned  or  frozen,  besides  suffering  other 
injuries  from  variations  of  temperature.  In  regard  to  the  in- 
fluence of  light,  our  information  is  not  so  precise.  People  living 
in  dark  places  are  pale,  and  are  supposed  to  be  sickly  and  weak, 
as  jiotatoes  growing  in  the  cellar  are  pale  and  weak ;  but  Avork- 
nien  in  coal  mines  are  not  always  weak,  and  if  they  are  shorts 
lived,  there  are  other  circumstances  to  account  for  it.  We  are 
greatly  in  want  of  more  precise  information  on  the  physiological 
action  of  light. 

The  atmosphere  is  a  very  important  and  complicated  subject 
of  study.  It  is  composed  of  mixed  gases  in  nearly  uniform  pro- 
portions, and   an   infinity  of  minute   particles   of  almost   every 


XIV  NAVAL  hygiexp:. 

substance  in  natni-c.  N'ai-iations  in  the  proportions  of  gaseous 
constituents  are  important,  and  when  excessive,  occasionally  fatal 
to  life ;  but  slight  variations,  such  as  frequently  occur,  seem  to 
be  without  serious  influence  on  health.  The  chemical  examina- 
tion of  the  leading  constituents  is  easily  enough  made ;  but  the 
minute  quantity  of  almost  unknown  matter,  sometimes  causing 
disease  and  death,  is,  for  the  most  part,  beyond  the  reach  of 
chemical  research.  The  contagion  of  variola  may  be  smelled, 
but  chemical  analysis  does  not  reveal  its  presence.  The  same 
mav  be  said  of  typhus.  Other  infectious  matter  is  known  to  be 
present  in  tlie  atmosphere,  not  by  the  smell,  not  by  chemical 
analysis,  but  by  the  fact  that  persons  inhaling  the  air  of  a  certain 
locality,  at  a  certain  time,  are  subsequently  affected  by  a  specific 
disease;  as  in  cases  of  scarlatina  and  rubeola,  typhoid  and  cholera, 
yellow  fever  and  the  malarial  fevers.  Chemical  analysis,  how- 
ever, is  of  essential  importance,  for  contamination  ^vitll  dangerous 
infectious  material,  under  certain  circumstances,  goes  on  in  pro- 
portion to  the  change  in  leading  constituents.  In  ordinary 
respiration  the  air  is  deprived  of  oxygen,  and  contaminated  by 
excass  of  carbon-dioxyde,  very  nearly  if  not  exactly  in  the  same 
proportion  as  it  is  contaminated  hy  pulmonary  and  cutaneous  ex- 
halations. 

We  are  hoping  for  more  information  from  the  microscope. 
The  air  everywhere  is  full  of  floating  particles,  some  of  them,  in 
the  sunbeam,  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  They  vary  in  size  from  the 
thousandth  of  a  centimeter  (M  .00001)  to  objects  infinitessimally 
minute.  Some  are  mineral  particles;  some,  fragments  of  all 
kinds  of  organic  material,  of  wool  and  feathers  and  hair,  of 
silk  and  grass  and  flax — the  species  and  amount  depending 
principally  on  the  locality.  But,  besides  these,  there  are  an  in- 
finity of  distinct  organic  forms, — the  pollen  of  flowers,  the  spores 
of  fungi  and  other  cryptogams,  even  entire  plants,  the  grains  of 
starch,  and  other  objects  much  more  minute,  which  have  never 
been  specifically  recognized.  It  is  suspected  that  some  of  these 
minute  objects  are  the  poison  germs  of  variola,  scarlatina,  typhoid, 
typhus,  malaria,  yellow  fcrer,  and  nearly  all  the  other  infectious 
diseases  received  through  the  atmosphere,      ft  has  been  objected 


INTRODUCTORY.  XV 

that  these  poison  germs  have  not  been  recognized,  perhaps  never 
seen;  but  the  objection  should  not  discourage  hopeful  inquiry, 
when  we  consider  the  vast  amount  of  evidence  pointing  in  this 
direction.  For  it  is  a  constant  miracle  of  our  race,  that  stout 
men  and  women,  by  proper  nourishment  and  proper  surround- 
ings, are  developed  from  an  organism  so  minute  as  not  to  be  seen 
bv  the  most  powerful  microscope.  This  particle  of  minuteness 
after  some  growth,  is  seen  by  a  microscope  magnifying  a  thousand 
diameters,  as  a  mere  speck.  In  a  few  days  more  it  is  big  enough 
to  show  definite  size  and  form  under  the  microscope;  and  yet 
this  minuteness  is  the  potential  man  or  woman  of  determined 
features,  even  to  the  color  of  the  hair  and  size  of  the  nose,  the 
predisposition  to  drunkenness  or  epilepsy,  phthisis  or  insanity. 
Who  then  shall  say  that  specific  poisons  in  the  air  are  not  definite 
organisms,  merely  because  no  one  as  yet  has  detected  them? 
The  spread  of  infectious  diseases  is  in  accordance  with  the  theory 
of  definite  organisms,  floating  like  thistle-down  through  the  air. 
Such  movement  would  capriciously  plant  them  on  the  individual, 
the  danger  increasing  very  rapidly  with  the  nearness  of  the  source 
(inversely  as  the  cube  of  the  distance).  If  it  were  a  case  of  the 
diffusion  of  poisonous  gases,  or  other  matter  soluble  in  the  atmos- 
phere, all  should  be  poisoned,  the  severity  of  the  disease  being 
in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  the  poison  inhaled.  It  is  thus 
with  known  poisons,  as  the  fumes  of  arsenic  and  phospiiorus, 
lead  and  mercury,  hydrogen-sulphide  and  zinc.  Our  most  re- 
liable test  at  the  present  time,  of  the  presence  of  poisons  in  the 
atmosphere,  is  the  fact  that  persons  visiting  the  suspected  locality 
suffer  from  the  sjjecific  disease.  How  else  do  we  know  that  cer- 
tain marshes  are  malarious  ?  How  else  do  we  know  that  variola 
and  rubeola  and  typhus  are  contagious  ?  Sometimes  we  know 
that  the  atmosphere  is  impure,  and  even  judge  of  the  kind  of 
impurity  by  the  sense  of  smell.  Sometimes  we  judge  by  chemical 
analysis.  Sometimes  we  know  that  poisons  are  being  thrown 
into  the  air  from  certain  manufactories. 

Water  comes  next  in  phvsiological  importance;  it  is  a  principal 
constituent  of  the  human  body,  so  that  we  constantly  need  it  for 
nourishment.     When  water  for  domestic  use  is  grosslv  bad,  we 


XVI  NAVAT-    HYGIEXE. 

are  likely  to  be  informed  by  tlie  color,  smell,  or  taste ;  and  our 
powers  of  discrimination  in  this  respect,  may  be  greatly  increased 
by  the  careful  cultivation  of  our  senses,  so  that  they  often  give 
us  very  precise  information. 

The  microscopic  examination  of  water  is  fruitful  in  important 
results,  not  often  of  itself,  but  in  connection  with  other  circum- 
stances. The  presence  of  a  fibre  of  cotton  or  linen,  silk  or  wool, 
is  of  itself  unimportant,  but  it  indicates,  with  great  probability, 
that  human  filth  from  a  leaky  drain  is  mingled  with  the  water. 
But  nearly  all  water,  good  and  bad,  contains  a  multiplicity  of 
visible  objects — some  unimportant,  as  the  earthy  particles  con- 
stituting mud.  jNIany  living  things  are  nearly  always  present 
and  cannot  indicate  harm,  but  only  that  the  water  is  not  quite 
bad  enough  to  kill  them.  Two  or  three  species  are  present  only 
in  good  water,  as  almost  any  kind  of  impure  water  destroys  them. 
Some  species  are  much  more  common  in  dirty  or  marsh  water ; 
some  are  positively  dangerous,  such  as  the  joints  and  eggs  of  tape- 
worm and  other  entozoa.  JNIany  are  so  small  and  so  regularly 
rounded  in  form,  as  not  to  be  easily  distinguished  from  each 
other.  Some,  doubtlessly,  are  so  minute  as  to  escape  observation 
altogether. 

The  chemical  examination  of  water  is,  perhaps,  still  more  im- 
portant, and  so  far  as  possible,  should  always  be  quantitive. 
Chlorine  is  always  present  in  small  quantities  without  much  sig- 
nificance, but  any  considerable  increase  of  the  quantity  in  water 
from  any  particular  source,  indicates  probable  contamination  by 
sewage.  The  mineral  constituents  always  present  in  varying 
minute  quantities,  are  doubtless  useful  as  mitriment;  but  varying 
proportions  of  these,  so  far  as  we  know,  are  of  no  account.  The 
greater  or  less  pro]:)ortion  of  organic  matter  in  solution,  is  an  im- 
])ortant  matter  to  determine,  though  the  importance  is  not  always 
in  proportion  to  the  amount  present,  for  water  contaminated  by 
peat  is  generally  wholesome,  while  nuich  less  contamination  by 
sewage  is  very  dangerous.  Thus  in  order  to  determine  the  char- 
acter of  water,  it  is  necessar}*  to  consider  all  these  circiunstances — 
source,  sensible  ciiaracters,  chemistry,  and  microscojn'.  The 
rcidlv  bjul  rharncter  oi'  \\;tt(>r,  sometimes,  can  onlv  be  determined 


IXTRODUCTORY.  XVll 

by  having  persons  drink  of  it.  Sucli  is  water  contaminated  by 
tyjjhoid  infection.  Of  course  we  do  not  propose  this  method  of 
testing  suspected  water ;  but  people  will  perform  this  experiment 
on  themselves,  in  spite  of  us,  and  we  may  have  an  opportunity  to 
observe  the  result  and  to  record  it.  The  facts  we  possess,  demon- 
strate that  very  small  quantities  of  organic  matter  in  water  may 
produce  terrifically  fatal  epidemics,  while  very  much  larger 
quantities  of  other  organic  material  may  do  no  appreciable  harm. 

Food  and  clothing  likewise  require  chemical  and  microscopic 
examinations, — sometimes  with  reference  to  crime,  such  as  sus- 
pected poisoning,  or  more  frequently  mere  swindling.  Every 
board  of  health  has  employment  for  an  expert  chemist,  with  the 
conveniences  of  a  small  laboratory. 

Naval  Hygiene  is  popularly  considered  as  the  art  of  preserving 
health  on  board  ship,  and  thus  we  might  have  naval  hygiene  and 
city  hygiene,  a  special  hygiene  of  farmei"s  and  of  merchants,  of 
weavers  and  of  tailors,  of  carpenters  and  of  masons,  of  millers 
and  of  lapidaries.  Popular  treatises  on  this  plan  and  on  these 
several  subjects  have  been  found  exceedingly  useful.  But  human 
health  is  so  nearly  the  same  everywhere,  that  to  the  student  of 
science  there  is  no  special  hygiene.  The  hygiene  of  the  weaver 
is  merely  a  chapter  of  general  hygiene,  illustrated  by  the  study 
of  the  effect  of  inhaling  dust  and  working  in  a  confined  atmos- 
phere. The  hygiene  of  the  carpenter  supplies  opportunities  to 
observe  the  effect  of  varied  out-door  exercise,  with  occasional  ex- 
posure to  dust  in  close  apartments.  The  house-painter's  hygiene 
is  similar,  with  the  addition  that  he  handles  and  inhales  more  or 
less  of  his  poisonous  paints.  But  what  condition  of  life  is  free 
from  the  occasional  inhalation  of  dust,  of  poisonous  fumes,  of 
confined  or  otherwise  impure  atmosphere.  And  so  of  Naval 
Hygiene.  It  is  but  a  contribution  to  general  hygiene,  with  some 
of  its  illustrations  drawn  from  incidents  of  naval  experience. 

Since  this  work  has  been  in  press,  I  have  visited  some  parts 
of  the  State  of  Colorado,  and  have  had  some  curious  experience 
in  illustration  of  the  above  view  of  the  case,  and  reminding  me 
that  the  prophylaxis  of  hydrophobia  belongs  to  naval  hygiene. 
In  the  City  of  Pueblo,   in  the  forenoon,   I  was  walking  on 

*  * 


will  XAVAL    HYGIENE. 

the  east  side  of  the  principal  avenue,  looking  at  objecte  in  the 
shop  windows,  when  suddenly  I  felt  something  at  my  elbow, 
and  there  wfus  a  great  black  dog  "which  had  seized  me  from  be- 
hind. He  pinched  pretty  hard  and  tore  through  three  thick- 
nesses of  cloth.  The  dog  evidently  belonged  to  a  wagon,  the 
horses  of  which  were  tied  to  an  awning  post,  and  he  had  probably 
been  trained  to  defend  his  master's  wagon  in  this  manner,  for  in 
the  course  of  a  minute  or  two  that  I  remained  in  the  nearest 
store,  he  attacked  several  other  persons  in  the  same  manner, 
always  retreating  under  his  wagon.  The  dog  and  his  owner 
were  taken  care  of  by  the  witnesses  and  the  bitten. 

The  arm,  on  first  examination,  was  thought  not  to  be  wounded 
at  all,  the  only  apparent  harm  being  a  little  pinching  and  tear- 
ing of  clothes.  This,  however,  did  not  quite  satisfy  me,  especially 
as  I  felt  a  smarting  point  on  the  surface,  and  l)y  a  closer  inspec- 
tion with  a  pocket  lens,  it  was  evident  that  the  cuticle  was  slightly 
abraded.  Here  are  the  characteristic  particulars  of  the  causation 
in  the  majority  of  the  cases  of  hydrophobia ;  if  I  should  suifer, 
the  dog  is  evidently  mad ;  if  I  should  escape,  the  dog,  of  course? 
is  a  healthv  dog — an  unconnnonly  good  dog  zealously  defending 
his  master's  property.  To  avoid  needlessly  alarming  friends  I 
sought  a  tinsmith,  in  order  that  with  a  white-hot  soldering-iron, 
this  little  speck  of  skin  might  be  converted  into  smoke  and  ashes; 
but,  so  far  as  I  could  learn,  there  is  no  tin  worker  in  the  city, 
and  a  friend  did  me  the  favor  to  burn  the  spot  with  a  cigar, 
which  he  puffed  vigorously  to  make  a  glowing  end,  and  he  ap- 
plied it  several  times.  The  part  Avas  deeply  burned,  hardened, 
and  blackened,  but  not  removed.  The  next  morning  at  Colorado 
Springs,  the  sight  of  a  blacksmith  shop  reminded  me  that  hot 
iron  may  be  found  even  in  Colorado ;  and  as  fire  insurance  is 
considered  reasonable  prudence  against  a  minor  misfortune,  I 
made  up  my  mind  to  be  reasonably  prudent  in  regard  to  the 
hydrophobia  risk,  l^ut  the  hot-iron  in  the  smith's  shop  seemed 
a  little  too  dramatic,  the  smith  might  refuse,  and  I  found  a 
physician  who  did  mo  tlic  favor  to  dissolve  the  injured  tissue  by 
means  of  strong  nitric  acid.  If  the  others  were  not  otherwise 
wounded  than  tliroiigli   several    thi<'knesses  of  ch)thing,  and   if 


INTRODUCTION.  XlX 

they  were  as  cautiou.s — we  shall  probably  hear  no  more  of  this 
dog's  doings. 

After  this  long  digression,  it  may  be  well  to  continue  the  sub- 
ject a  little  longer.  Docs  the  prevention  of  hydrophobia  belong 
to  the  subject  of  naval  hygiene  ?  Yes,  or  at  any  rate  the  emerg- 
ency has  occurred  in  naval  experience.  In  1846,  in  California, 
by  command  of  Commodore  Robert  Stockton,  there  was  formed  a 
regiment  of  mounted  riflemen — an  amphibious  little  army  on 
horseback.  While  encamped  v/ith  this  naval  force  at  the  Mission 
of  San  Juan  Batisto,  about  midnight,  I  was  aroused  from  sleep 
by  my  companion,  who  informed  me  that  he  had  been  bitten  in 
the  foot  by  a  mad  dog.  Luckily  he  slept  with  his  boots  on,  and 
the  fangs  did  not  penetrate  the  leather.  But,  notwithstanding  a 
pretty  general  alarm  of  the  camp,  three  men  were  actually 
wounded ;  two  in  the  face  and  one  through  the  hand.  I  have 
to  reproach  myself  Avith  inefficiency  in  the  care  of  these  cases.  T 
knew  of  the  terrific  death  to  be  apprehended,  and  was  aware  of 
good  authority  for  amputating  the  hand,  but  this  seemed  too 
strong  a  measure,  and  besides  it  left  two  aises  unprovided  for. 
The  good  spirit  did  not  remind  me  of  the  hot-iron,  which,  with 
the  help  of  the  horse-shoer,  I  might  readily  have  applied.  The 
remedies  actually  used  w^ere  so  much  like  nothing  in  this  serious 
emergency,  that  they  need  not  be  mentioned  at  all.  No  further 
serious  result  occurred  to  the  men,  who  remained  under  observa- 
tion for  nearly  a  year.  An  account  of  these  cases  exists  in  the 
medical  liLstory  of  a  cruise  of  the  U.  S.  Frigate  Savannah,  on  file 
in  the  Bureau  of  Medicine  and  Surgery.  To  complete  the  his- 
tory of  my  experience  on  this  subject: — In  1840,  Charles  Baker, 
of  Philadelphia,  teased  a  pet  dog  till  after  much  snapping  it 
finally  bit  his  finger.  He  gave  it  a  cuff  for  its  crossness,  and 
thought  no  more  of  the  matter.  It  afterwards  bit  two  children 
that  had  been  accustomed  to  play  with  it.  Baker  became  my 
unhappy  patient  and  died  of  hydrophobia.  Am.  Jour.  Med.  Set. 
In  1851,  in  the  same  neighborhood,  Henry  Bender  found  liis  pet 
dog  in  the  stable,  very  cross  with  his  horse.  It  bit  the  horse  and 
himself  too,  before  he  succeeded  in  driving  it  away.  It  likewise 
bit  a  child  before  he  was  able  to  give  the  alarm.     Mr.  B.  soon 


XX  NAVAI.    HYGIENE. 

after  died   of  hydrophobia.     The  oliild  escaped,  and  is  now  a 
healthy  Avoman  more  than  thirty  years  old. 

Here  we  liave  a  record  of  (9)  nine  persons  wounded  by  the  bites 
of  dogs ;  (5 )  five  of  these  were  bitten  by  mad  dogs,  and  one  of 
the  five  died  of  liydropliobia ;  (4)  four,  including  myself,  Avere 
bitten  by  dogs  supposed  to  be  healthy  until  the  subsequent  de- 
velopment of  disease,  and  one  of  the  four  died  of  hydrophobia. 
These  few  numbers  thus  placed,  suggest  the  possible  fallacy  of 
some  of  our  statistical  tables  constructed  without  a  proper  analysis 
of  the  records  from  which  the  numbers  are  taken.  Some  of  them 
are  constructed  without  any  record  whatever  of  important  inci- 
dents necessary  to  any  useful  analysis.  This  valuable  modern 
method  of  study,  from  want  of  due  consideration,  has  already 
imposed  some  fallacies  upon  the  world. 


ITAVAL    HYGIEITE. 


CHAPTER   I. 


THE   OUTFIT THE   SHIP. 


(1.)  In  the  summer  of  1860,  I  reported  at  the  Phihidelphia 
navy  yard  for  sea-service.  The  first  duty  is  to  obtain  a  suitable 
outfit  of  medicines,  surgical  instruments,  disinfectants  and  deodor- 
izers, and  other  needful  appliances ;  and  this  having  been  properly 
attended  to,  we  leisurely  survey  the  ship  which  is  to  be  our  home 
for  a  year  or  two  or  more. 

(2.)  The  form  of  the  ship  is  controlled  by  the  circumstance 
that  it  must  be  propelled  through  the  water  with  the  greatest 
facility.  Every  other  consideration  gives  way  to  this ;  and  hence 
the  form  is  the  same  in  all  ages  and  in  all  countries.  There  is 
less  variety  of  internal  arrangements  than  would  readily  be  im- 
agined. Thus,  in  a  very  small  vessel  we  have  simply  the  hold, 
with  a  single  deck  over  it.  When  the  vessel  is  larger  there  are 
added  one,  two  or  more  decks,  like  the  stories  of  a  house;  the 
hold  is  divided  into  several  parts  by  transverse  partitions,  and 
the  space  between  decks  into  store-rooms,  sleeping-rooms,  and 
cabins.     These  we  examine  in  detail. 

(3.)  Beginning  above,  we  have  first  the  spar-deck,  which  in 
our  ship  carries  the  battery.  This  is  the  only  place  where  we 
can  be  in  the  open  air  at  sea.  It  is,  hence,  the  place  of  a  little 
daily  exercise  for  the  whole  ship's  company.  The  seamen  get 
their  exercise  by  their  regular  work,  and  the  officers  by  walking 
back  and  forth  as  they  find  it  convenient. 

(4.)  The  after  part  of  the  spar-deck,  partitioned  oft',  is  the 
cabin — the  appropriate  residence  of  the  commanding  officer.    This 

2 


18  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [    §  7. 

apartment  being  well  ventilated,  lighted  by  good-sized  windows, 
and  neatly  kept,  is  all  that  can  be  desired  in  healthful  arrange- 
ments, and  being  occupied  by  a  single  person,  is  relatively  large. 
The  forward  part  of  the  spar-deck,  in  most  ships,  is  protected  by 
the  forecastle — a  small  triangular  deck,  which  is  exceedingly 
useful  in  stormy  weather,  aifording  shelter  to  the  men  employed 
in  this  part  of  the  ship.  Our  ship  has  no  forecastle,  but  the 
hurricane-deck,  over  the  engine  and  between  the  wheel-house, 
answers  the  same  purpose. 

(5.)  Next  below  the  spar-deck,  in  a  frigate  or  larger  vessel,  is 
the  main  gun-deck,  appropriated  to  the  accommodation  of  the  bat- 
tery. It  is  the  sleeping-place  of  a  great  part  of  the  crew ;  and 
havino-  the  large  gun-ports  at  the  sides,  and  hatches  in  the  deck 
above,  it  is  perfectly  ventilated.  The  after  part  of  this  deck  is 
partitioned  off  to  afford  apartments  for  a  commanding  officer — 
for  the  admiral,  if  there  is  one  on  board.  This  apartment  is  simi- 
lar to  the  spar-deck  cabin  in  regard  to  light  and  ventilation.  The 
line-of-battle  ship  has  another  gun-deck  below  the  first,  but  it  is 
so  near  the  water-line  that  the  side-ports  must  generally  be  closed 
at  sea ;  and  having  two  decks  above,  the  deficiency  of  air  and 
light  begins  to  be  seriously  felt.  It  is  a  region  of  poor  air  and 
comparative  darkness.  The  after  part  of  this  deck  is  partitioned 
off  to  form  the  ward-room — the  apartment  of  most  of  the  com- 
missioned officers.  But  the  ship  that  now  interests  us  has  no 
gun-decks. 

(6.)  Next  below  the  spar-deck  of  the  smaller  vessels  is  the 
berth-deck  This  is  occupied  by  the  crew.  The  arrangements 
for  ventilation  are  good,  much  better  than  formerly.  Instead  of 
the  large  square  gun-ports  of  the  frigates,  there  are  circular  air- 
ports about  seven  inches  in  diameter,  and  so  high  from  the  water 
that  they  can  generally  be  kept  open,  except  in  stormy  weather. 
The  after  part  is  the  ward-room.  This  apartment  is  quite  neat, 
and  has  a  range  of  small  rooms  on  each  side ;  each  room,  about 
six  feet  square,  is  appropriated  to  an  individual  officer.  These 
are  the  officers'  staterooms,  where  each  one,  according  to  his  in- 
dividual taste  or  fancy,  accumulates  a  wonderful  amount  of  con- 
veniences and  comforts. 

(7.)  Below  the  berth-deck  is  the  orlop,  below  the  water-line,  so 
dark  and  so  poorly  ventilated  as  not  to  be  habitable.     It  is  used 


§  9.  ]  THE    WINGS — THE    HOLD.  19 

for  store-rooms,  which  are  arranged  on  the  sides  of  a  narrow 
central  passage.  The  forward  part  of  this  deck  is  the  yeoman's 
store-room,  used  to  store  various  small  things  frequently  called 
for.  It  is  occupied  much  of  the  time  by  the  yeoman.  No  light 
penetrates  here,  even  at  noonday,  except  the  light  of  lamps  and 
candles.  It  has  one  small  hatch,  generally  covered  by  a  grating 
to  prevent  accident,  and  even  by  a  tarpauling ;  and  there  is  no 
corresponding  hatch  in  the  spar-deck,  lest  rain  should  get  down. 
The  door  is  in  part  of  open  work,  but  this  is  mostly  obstructed 
by  a  curtain — the  curious  inhabitant  of  the  place  holding  ventila- 
tion in  such  contempt  that  he  thus  cuts  off  the  very  deficient  sup- 
ply. This  room  is  always  neatly  arranged,  and  with  such  atten- 
tion to  ornament  that  it  is  one  of  the  places  of  chief  attraction  to 
visitors ;  but  it  cannot  be  otherwise  than  unhealthy,  and  its  strange 
occupant  is  conspicuous  for  his  pale,  sickly  look.  He  has  so  much 
attachment  to  his  submarine  abode  that  he  is  generally  compelled 
to  close  it  at  a  certain  hour,  and  to  pass  a  portion  of  his  time  on 
the  spar-deck.  We  think  it  would  be  advantageous  to  have  the 
hatch  gratings  of  this  apartment,  and  indeed  all  the  gratings  of 
the  ship,  except  on  the  spar-deck,  made  of  metal  instead  of  wood, 
so  that  they  might  possess  the  necessary  strength  with  the  least 
possible  obstruction  to  the  circulation  of  air. 

(8.)  There  are  likewise  narrow  passages — the  wings  of  the  orlop — 
leading  batik  of  the  store-room  on  each  side,  so  as  to  separate  the 
stores  from  the  damp  sides  of  the  ship.  The  wings  might  be  well 
ventilated  by  flues  in  the  heated  bulkhead,  which  separates  them 
from  the  engine-room.  Such  an  arrangement  would  give  pretty 
good  ventilation  to  the  whole  orlop  forward,  and  would  greatly 
contribute  to  the  preservation  of  the  stores. 

(9.)  The  hold  is  the  lower  part  of  the  ship.  It  is  damp,  poorly 
ventilated,  and  it  is  used  for  general  storage.  It  is  divided  by 
transverse  partitions  to  suit  various  requirements.  Commencing 
aft,  there  is  first  the  powder-magazine.  This  is  kept  dry  and  neat 
for  the  preservation  of  powder,  and  calls  for  no  special  attention 
from  us.  The  sail-room  comes  next,  and  to  it  the  same  remark 
is  applicable.  There  are  in  many  ships  of  war,  in  all  large  ones, 
an  additional  sail-room  and  magazine  forward.  Forward  of  the 
sail-room  is  the  spirit-room,  the  most  dangerous  part  of  the  whole 
ship.     It  is  used  for  the  storage  of  molasses,  vinegar,  cheese,  and 


20 


NAVAL    HYGIENE. 


[§11. 


Fig.  1. 


Spirit-room. 


various  other  articles  of  provisions.  Heterogeneous  fragments 
and  leakage  are  likely  to  form  an  offensive  mass  of  putrid  mud 
at  the  bottom ;  and  this  division  of  the 
hold  being  rather  small,  has  but  one 
hatch,  which  is  generally  closed,  so  that 
it  is  not  much  more  ventilated  than  the 
interior  of  a  well-corked  bottle.  It  al- 
ways has  a  peculiar  offensive  odor,  which 
can  only  be  corrected  by  ventilation  and 
good  order  in  all  the  arrangements. 

(10.)  The  engine-room  occupies  a  mid- 
dle section  of  the  ship  from  the  floor  up- 
wards. A  leading  peculiarity  of  this  part  is  its  high  tempera- 
ture. The  eno;ineers  are  doino;  whatever  can  be  done  to  obviate 
this  inconvenience,  by  abundant  ventilation,  and  by  covering  the 
boilers  and  other  heated  parts  of  the  engines  with  thick  masses 
of  felt  and  wood.  A  serious  mistake  has  sometimes  been  made, 
by  securing  the  machinery  to  the  floor  in  such  a  way  that  the 
drainage  was  not  sufficient,  and  there  were  spots  which  it  was 
impossible  to  clean.  Under  these  circumstances,  pools  of  mud 
and  grease  from  the  engine  have  accumulated,  and  have  been  the 
cause  of  disease,  especially  of  yellow  fever,  whenever  the  vessel 
has  been  a  few  weeks  in  a  warm  climate  {La  Roche).     The  diffi- 


FlQ.  2. 


Floor  of  Steamships. 


culty  has  been  remedied  only  by  removing  the  machinery  and 
rearranging  it  in  such  a  way  that  every  spot  underneath  could  be 
reached  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning. 

(11.)  The  main-hold,  forward  of  the  spirit-room  and  the 
engine-room,  is  the  great  storehouse  of  the  ship ;  and  the  storage 
and  care  of  it  are  of  the  first  importance  to  health.     Constant 


§  14.  ]  THE   CHAIN-LOCKERS THE    HOSPITAL.  21 

attention  is  required  to  prevent  fragments  of  packages,  chips, 
barrel  hoops,  and  miscellaneous  dirt  from  getting  beneath  and 
out  of  retich.  The  iron  water-tanks  are  very  advantageous  in 
this  respect,  as  they  can  be  so  arranged  as  to  form  a  nearly  level 
floor,  and  the  joints  between  them  can  be  calked  in  such  a  way 
that  dirt  cannot  possibly  settle  between  them.  With  barrels  and 
casks  it  is  otherwise,  for  with  them  the  dirt  cannot  be  kept  out. 
The  hold  is  provided  with  two  hatches,  near  the  ends,  for  conve- 
nience of  storage  and  access ;  and  the  arrangement  is  really  of 
great  advantage  for  ventilation.  The  hold  should  always  be 
stowed,  with  a  passage  on  each  side,  reaching  from  the  main  to 
the  fore-hatch,  large  enough  for  a  man  to  pass  through.  With 
both  hatches  uncovered,  there  is  then  sure  to  be  a  little  more 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  at  one  hatch  than  at  the  other,  and 
thus  a  good  ventilation  current  is  established  without  further 
attention. 

(12.)  The  chain-lockers  are  sometimes  so  constructed  that  mud 
brought  up  by  the  chains,  reaches  the  bottom  of  the  ship,  to  be  a 
nuisance  and  to  obstruct  the  pumps.  These  lockers  should  be 
made  of  plank,  well  fitted  and  calked,  so  that  if  the  chains  in- 
troduce any  mud,  it  may  be  cleaned  out  and  thrown  overboard. 

(13.)  We  see  nothing  of  prison  or  hospital,  because,  in  fact, 
there  are  no  such  apartments  on  board.  If  it  should  be  attempted 
to  allot  space  to  prisoners,  such  as  is  deemed  necessary  for  the 
preservation  of  health  elsewhere,  they  would  be  at  least  five  times 
better  off  in  this  respect  than  the  rest  of  the  crew.  The  prison 
is  an  allotted  place  for  the  prisoner  to  sit,  generally  between  two 
guns,  in  charge  of  a  sentry. 

(14.)  The  sick  on  board  ship,  commonly  occupy  the  same  sleep- 
ing-place as  when  they  are  well.  When  they  are  unable  to  do 
this,  a  cot  is  provided  and  swung  in  the  best  place,  the  man  dis- 
placed by  the  arrangement  changing  places  with  the  sick  man. 
In  frigates  and  the  larger  vessels,  there  is  a  triangular  space  from 
the  foremast  forward,  called  the  sick-bay  or  hospital,  large  enough 
to  contain  four  or  five  cots.  This  answers  a  good  purpose,  as  the 
worst  cases  are  thus  withdrawn  from  the  noise  and  confusion  of 
the  berth-deck.  But  the  place  is  poorly  ventilated,  and  in  cases 
of  serious  illness,  it  is  usual,  as  a  matter  of  necessity,  to  appro- 
priate a  portion  of  the  gun-deck,  screened  off  for  the  purpose. 


22  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  14. 

In  cases  of  severe  epidemics,  the  ship  becomes  a  floating  hospital 
altogether. 

In  merchant  ships  there  ls  a  three-cornered  place  in  the  bows, 
forward,  partitioned  off  for  the  crew,  and  a  cabin  aft  for  the  officers 
and  passengers.  The  remainder  of  the  ship  is  the  hold,  for  the 
storage  of  cargo. 

The  cabin,  from  its  convenience  with  reference  to  air  and  light, 
is  sometimes  superior  to  the  corres2)onding  apartment  of  the  ship- 
of-war.  But  those  little  sleeping-shelves,  which  we  sometimes  see 
in  very  fine  ships,  are  none  too  good.  The  triangular  place  for- 
Avard  which  the  crew  inhabit,  the  forecastle,  is  for  the  most  part 
really  shocking.  It  is  seldom  visited  by  the  officers,  and  is  gener- 
ally filled  with  disgusting  emanations  from  the  untidy  persons  of 
those  who  occupy  it.  It  may  sometimes  be  difficult  to  assign  more 
space  to  the  crew,  but  the  sleeping  arrangements  might  be  much 
improved  by  removing  the  shelves  on  which  they  lie,  one  above 
another,  with  the  usual  nuisance  in  the  shape  of  vermin.  The 
hammock,  such  as  is  used  in  men-of-war,  costs  little  more,  and  Ls 
readily  removed  to  the  deck,  aired  and  dried.  The  clothes,  kept 
in  canvas  bags,  would  be  much  cleaner  and  in  better  order  than 
with  the  present  arrangement  of  chests.  The  partitions,  espe- 
cially in  vessels  that  carry  offensive  cargoes,  as  guano  or  hides, 
should  be  calked  air-tight.  But  above  all,  there  should  be  fre- 
quent attention  to  this  part  of  the  ship  to  keep  it  clean  and  neat, 
and  there  should  be  no  sparing  of  whitewash.  We  sometimes 
hear  complaints  of  the  scarcity  of  sailors,  but  under  present  cir- 
cumstances we  might  as  well  complain  that  there  are  few  suitable 
candidates  for  the  penitentiary.  Though  such  laborers  may  be 
])rofitably  used,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  number  of  men  who 
reach  this  degree  of  misery  may  not  be  increased. 


CHAPTEK    11. 

DRAINAGE — PUMPS — BILGE- WATER — IRON  SHIPS — PAINT. 

(15.)  One  of  the  most  important  things  influencing  health  on 
board,  is  certainly  the  free  circulation  towards  the  pumps  of  the 
water  which  collects  in  the  lower  parts  of  the  ship.  This  water, 
driblets  of  which  are  constantly  flowing  from  various  points, 
certainly  putrefies  unless  it  flows  freely  to  the  pumps  and  is  re- 
moved. Epidemics  of  dysentery,  yellow  fever,  and  typhus, 
have  appeared  to  owe  their  existence  on  board  to  stagnant  pools 
of  muddy  water.  It  is  hence  of  the  greatest  importance  in  all 
the  details  of  construction  and  outfit  that  this  should  be  kept  in 
mind.  The  pump,  to  be  a  good  one,  must  reach  the  very  lowest 
part,  in  order  that  it  may  remove  nearly  all  the  water.  It  should 
have  the  lower  end  guarded  by  a  sieve,  coarse  enough  to  admit 
muddy  water,  and  fine  enough  to  exclude  fragments  of  clothing 
and  cotton  waste ;  for  articles  of  this  kind  sometimes  get  into 
the  pump-well,  and  their  presence  might  seriously  interfere  with 
the  working  of  the  pump.  The  arrangements  in  our  public  vessels 
are  commonly  quite  sufficient. 

(16.)  The  principal  defect  that  I  have  noticed  is  that  the  pumps 
are  sometimes  too  short,  especially  if  the  vessel  is  very  dry.  In 
these  cases  a  small  pool  is  formed  about  the  pump-well,  and  the 
leakage  being  small,  it  may  take  a  number  of  days  for  the  pool 
to  enlarge  so  as  to  make  it  appear  necessary  to  work  the  pumps. 
It  hence  becomes  stagnant,  and  small  as  it  is,  very  offensive,  and 
injurious  to  health  as  well  as  to  white  paint.  Seamen  have  a 
maxim,  in  some  degree  true,  that  a  leaky  ship  is  free  from  bilge- 
water,  and  I  have  had  the  misfortune  to  be  on  board  a  vessel  in 
which  it  was  attempted  to  imitate  the  leaky  ship  in  this  particu- 
lar. Sea-water  was  introduced  every  day  for  about  a  week  and 
pumped  out  again,  and  the  evil  was  horribly  aggravated,  so  that 
the  nuisance  was  hardly  removed  afterwards  during  a  cruise  of 


24 


NAVAL   HYGIENE. 


[§18. 


four  years.  On  board  two  other  vessels,  the  only  other  vessels 
on  which  I  have  sailed  with  perceptible  bilge-water,  it  was  readily 
removed  l)y  a  small  copper  jiump,  a  bilge  pump,  extemporized 
for  the  occasion.  This  was  made  to  reach  the  very  bottom  by 
withdrawing  the  valves  from  a  large  pump,  and  passing  the  bilge- 
pump  down  through  its  centre.  We  confidently  recommend  this 
expedient  where  there  is  bilge-water  in  a  dry  ship.  Of  course, 
if  dirt  is  allowed  to  obstruct  the  limbers  no  pump  can  remove  the 
nuisance.  In  steamers  the  pumps  worked  by  the  engine  are  most 
efficient. 

(17.)  The  pumps  are  inclosed  in  a  small  space  called  the 
pump-well,  which  is  accessible  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  and 
introducing  disinfectants.  To  this  place  various  drains  bring  the 
M'ater  that  leaks  into  the  shi]).  The  principal  of  these  drains  are 
the  limbers,  channel-ways  each  side  of  the  kelson,  and  extending 
the  whole  length  of  the  ship.  From  negligence  or  poor  manage- 
ment, they  are  liable  to  be  stopped  up  by  chips,  mud,  tar,  oakum, 
rags,  and  fragments  of  all  sorts.  The  consequences  of  such  an 
accident  are  annoying  and  dangerous.  Formerly  it  was  the  cus- 
tom to  have  a  chain  or  a  rope — the  limber  rope — passing  from  end 


Fig.  3. 


Floor  of  Ship. 


to  end  through  the  limbers,  and  so  arranged  that  by  acting  on  the 
ends  it  might  be  moved  backward  and  forward,  thus  stirring  up 
mud  and  moving  obstructions.  The  better  way  is  to  omit  the 
limber  rope,  which  is  itself  an  obstruction,  and  to  take  care  of 
the  hold  in  such  a  way  that  no  mud  or  dirt  shall  ever  enter  the 
limbers. 

(18.)  Naval  constructors  occasionally  try  the  experiment  of 
building  the  floor  of  a  ship  very  flat,  so  that  the  water  cannot 


§  20.  ]  LONG   SHIPS — BILGE-WATER.  25 

rendily  flow  from  the  wings — from  the  sides  of  the  ship  to  the 
limbers.  Fortunately  for  health,  all  vessels  of  this  form  have 
proved  utterly  deficient  in  sailing  qualities. 


Fio.  4. 


Floor  of  Badly-foruied  Ship. 

(19.)  Ships  are  now  built  somewhat  longer  than  was  formerly 
the  fashion.  This  form  has  such  advantages  in  the  way  of  speed, 
that  we  must  do  the  best  we  can  with  it.  The  keel  being  straight, 
and  the  pump  near  the  centre  of  the  length,  when  the  ship  is  on 
even  keel,  the  water  has  but  little  fall  from  either  end,  and  nmst 
flow  very  slowly  to  the  pumps.  When  the  ship  is  not  on  even 
keel — either  by  the  head  or  by  the  stern — there  is  necessarily  a 
pool  of  stagnant  water  at  one  end  or  the  other.  The  remedy  is 
simple  enough, — a  bilge-j)ump  at  each  end  in  addition  to  the  main 
pumps. 

(20.)  Vegetable  matter  decaying  in  a  pool  of  fresh  water,  gives 
05"  a  large  quantity  of  light  carburetted  hydrogen  gas.  This 
may  be  collected  from  almost  any  half-stagnant  pool  in  a  meadow, 
by  inverting  a  tumbler  in  the  pool  and  stirring  the  mud  with  a 
stick,  and  when  set  on  fire  it  goes  off  with  a  light  explosion.  In 
a  pool  of  sea- water  the  same  process  of  decay  takes  place ;  but, 
on  account  of  the  presence  of  sulphate  of  magnesia  and  other 
sulphates,  by  interchange  of  elements,  the  carbon  of  the  gaseous 
product  is  replaced  by  sulphur,  forming  (HjS)  hydrogen  sulphide, 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas,  a  most  deadly  poison — the  offensive 
material  to  which  bilge-water  owes  all  its  important  peculiarities. 
Possibly  the  poisonous  properties  of  this  substance  may  have 
been  exaggerated.  We  know  that  it  is  nearly  always  present  in 
the  intestines  without  apparent  harm ;  and  it  may  exist  on  board 
ship,  to  a  very  offensive  amount,  wdthout  our  being  able  to  point 
out  any  resulting  injury  to  health.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  we 
read  of  one  man  falling  dead,  and  others  made  very  ill,  by  un- 
bunofins:  a  cask  of  sea-water  which  had  been  used  as  ballast.    We 


26  NAVAL   HYGIENE.  [  §  23. 

liavc  likewise  the  evidence  of  the  chemists  who  htive  occasionally 
inhaled  it  in  experimenting.  The  identity  of  (H^S)  hydrogen 
sulphide  and  the  offensive  matter  of  bilge-water  is  not  doubted 
bv  any  person  at  all  acquainted  with  it.  It  is  easily  obtained  by 
keeping  sea- water  a  few  days  in  a  bottle  with  a  few  bits  of  cork, 
or  otlier  vegetable  matter.  It  may  be  made  in  dangerous  quan- 
tities by  allowing  some  sea-water  to  remain  for  some  time  in  a 
wooden  cask  with  the  bung  closed,  as  in  the  case  above  mentioned. 
On  the  whole,  we  infer  that  there  is  not  much  danger  from  hy- 
drogen sulphide,  when  sufficiently  diluted  to  be  tolerated  by  the 
senses. 

(21.)  The  only  remedy  for  bilge-water  is  to  keep  the  ship  dry 
and  clean.  This  is  accomplished  by  frequent  pumping,  thorough 
cleaning,  and  constant  care,  to  prevent  dirt  and  fragments  from 
getting  into  the  lower  parts  of  the  ship  and  out  of  sight.  The 
scouring  of  decks  is  of  less  importance,  and  does  not  make  a 
clean  ship  in  a  sanitary  point  of  view.  The  means  of  mitigating 
the  nuisance  of  bilge-water,  are  the  frequent  use  of  hypochlorites, 
such  as  chlorinated  lime  or  chlorinated  soda  (Labarraque  solution), 
antiseptic  salts,  iron  chloride,  zinc  chloride,  iron  sulphate,  etc. ; 
and  certain  salts  which  have  the  property  of  decomposing  (H^S) 
hydrogen  sulphide,  and  leaving  nothing  but  inoffensive  material 
in  its  stead,  such  as  lead  nitrate. 

(22.)  The  commonly  recommended  way  of  using  chlorinated 
lime,  is  to  place  it  in  saucers,  or  to  sprinkle  it  about  in  places 
where  it  seems  likely  to  be  useful.  It  parts  freely  with  its  chlo- 
rine under  these  circumstances,  which  being  diffused  in  contact 
with  the  hydrogen  sulphide,  perfect  decomposition  takes  place 
promptly.  A  better  way  is  to  mix  it  with  water,  or  put  it  in  the 
common  whitewash  mixture,  and  apply  it  with  a  brush  to  the 
lower  parts  of  the  ship,  and  more  particularly  about  the  pumps. 
It  thus  presents  a  large  surface  for  evaporation,  and  is  very  effec- 
tive. The  chlorinated  soda,  Labarraque  solution,  may  be  used  in 
the  same  way ;  but,  on  tlie  whole,  is  not,  perhaps,  quite  so  conve- 
nient. It  has  the  advantage,  however,  that  when  thrown  into 
the  limbers  or  pump-well,  it  leaves  no  residuum  likely  to  inter- 
fere in  any  way  with  the  working  of  the  pumps. 

(23.)  Zinc  chloride,  Burnett  solution,  is  probably  the  most  ef- 
fective, and  the  most  generally  applica1)le  of  all  chemical  agents 


§  25.  ]  BURNETT   SOLUTION — METALS.  27 

for  mitigating  the  effects  of  bilge-water.  It  is  best  a})])iied  by 
placing  it  directly  in  contact  with  the  organic  matters  which,  by 
their  decay,  are  giving  offence.  This  is  done  by  pouring  it,  prop- 
erly diluted,  into  the  stagnant  pools  from  which  the  offending 
emanations  come.  It  is  likewise  useful  sprinkled  about  in  any 
place  where  the  smell  is  perceived*.  The  iron  sulphate,  and  vari- 
ous other  substances,  have  similar  properties,  but  in  an  inferior 
degree.  In  steamers,  the  coal-ashes  wetted  to  prevent  its  bloAV- 
ing  about,  affords  a  large  quantity  of  iron  sulphate ;  and  if  it  be 
made  very  wet  and  allowed  to  drain  into  the  limbers,  it  is  a  very 
important  and  a  very  convenient  means  of  disinfection  for  this 
class  of  vessels. 

(24.)  These  applications  give  very  satisfactory  results  for  the 
time ;  but,  as  the  accumulation  of  sea- water  goes  on,  any  store  of 
them  which  could  be  carried,  would  be  speedily  exhausted  if  they 
alone  were  depended  upon.  They  are  to  be  considered  only  as 
occasional  means  of  mitigating  the  evil.  The  black  color  of 
bilge- water,  generally  observed  in  pumping  out,  seems  to  be  of 
little  importance;  the  water,  having  lain  in  contact  with  oak 
wood  and  iron  ballast,  has  merely  brought  together  the  constitu- 
ents of  writing  ink.  This  color  constantly  belongs  to  offensive 
bilge-water,  as  the  stagnation  of  sea-water  in  contact  wdth  these 
things  must  necessarily  produce  both  hydrogen  sulphide  and  the 
black  color. 

(25.)  The  metals  used  in  ship-building  are  in  many  ways  bene- 
ficial to  health.  They  are  mostly  innocent  in  themselves,  and 
their  great  tenacity  gives  them  great  advantage  in  tightening 
joints.  Every  year  they  are  used  more  extensively,  and  we  may 
congratulate  ourselves  that  health  ls  constantly  improving  through 
their  influence.  Iron  is  taking  the  place  of  wood  in  many  parts 
of  the  ship,  and  some  vessels  are  built  almost  exclusively  of  iron. 
Its  gradual  oxidation  seems  to  be  the  only  way  in  which  it  decays, 
and  this  has  been  prevented,  in  boats,  and  some  parts  of  larger  ves- 
sels, by  coating  the  plates  with  zinc-galvanizing,  as  well  as  by  paint- 
ing. The  general  use  of  iron  water-tanks,  instead  of  wooden  casks, 
has  been  of  very  great  benefit  to  health  and  comfort.  Good  spring 
water  generally  contains  enough  sulphates  from  the  soil  through 
which  it  has  filtered  to  become  exceedingly  offensive  wdien  confined 
a  short  time  in  a  wooden  cask.     But  in  iron  tanks,  if  it  con- 


28  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  26. 

tains  a  portion  of  vegetable  matter,  this  soon  decomposes,  and  as  the 
iron  contains  no  new  material  for  decomposition,  the  water  quickly 
becomes  good,  and  remains  so  ever  afterwards.  The  iron  like- 
wise, by  its  oxidation,  decomposes  the  salts  of  brackish  water — 
the  best  obtainable  at  some  places,  so  that  the  water  is  greatly  im- 
proved in  quality  by  being  kept  for  a  time.  An  incidental  dis- 
advantage of  iron  ships,  is  the  rapidity  with  which  the  external 
temperature  is  communicated  through  the  thin  sides.  A  tropical 
sun  shining  on  the  side  of  a  ship,  especially  if  painted  black,  will 
sometimes  make  it  hot  enough  to  burn  the  hand.  The  metal, 
conducting  heat  perhaps  a  hundred  times  faster  than  wood,  must 
become  nearly  as  hot  inside  as  externally  ;  and  if  there  be  a  broad 
surface  thus  heated,  the  vessel  can  scarcely  be  inha])ited  for  the 
heat.  In  cold  weather,  it  is  not  quite  so  bad,  but  in  the  navj,  I 
once  had  occasion  to  make  a  report  and  recommendation  to  the 
following  effect : 

U.  S.  Steamer  M ,  Nov.  25th, . 

Sir  :  I  have  to  report  a  long  sick  list,  about  five  times  the  average,  caused  by 
the  discomforts  of  the  ship  as  at  present  situated.  The  hull  being  of  iron,  there 
are  large  surfaces  of  bare  metal  in  the  walls  which  inclose  the  berth-deck  and 
hold.  These  surfaces  of  iron  in  mild  weather  trickle  with  condensed  water, 
and  in  cold  weather  they  become  more  or  less  thickly  coated  with  ice.  At  pres- 
ent they  become  coated  with  ice  during  the  night,  and  are  wet  with  dribbling 
streams  at  all  other  times.  In  my  opinion  it  will  be  found  impossible  to  keep 
the  crew  on  board  in  tolerable  health  without  some  additional  provisions  for 
their  comfort.  I  would  therefore  recommend  that  such  surfaces  below  deck  of 
bare  metal,  as  are  accessible,  be  ceiled  with  wood  without  any  delay,  except 
such  as  may  be  rendered  unavoidable  by  the  exigencies  of  more  urgent  duty. 

Very  respectfully,  etc., 

Commander . 

(26.)  Copper  is  much  less  used  than  iron.  The  sheathing 
which  protects  the  bottom  of  the  ship  from  various  sea  animals 
is  its  principal  use.  It  is  occasionally  used  where  iron  would  be 
better,  being  both  stronger  and  cheaper.  Copper  was  formerly 
much  used  for  cooking  utensils,  and  occasional  carelessness  may 
have  allowed  its  poisonous  oxide  to  adhere  to  its  surface,  and  thus 
it  may  have  been  the  cause  of  accidental  poisoning.  It  is  used  for 
many  otlier  piu'poses,  especially  alloyed  as  brass,  for  mere  orna- 
ment.    There  is  no  great  injury  to  health  from  this  source ;  but 


§  28.  ]  LEAD — PAINT.  29 

too  much  of  it  involves  useless  labor  and  some  annoyance  from 
the  greasy  rags  used  in  polishing. 

Lead  is  not  much  used  in  ship-building.  Its  easy  malleability 
causes  it  to  be  used  to  a  limited  extent,  but  its  cost  and  its  poi- 
sonous properties  are  so  well  understood,  that  there  appears  to  be 
no  disposition  among  constructors  to  use  it  where  it  is  capable  of 
doing  harm. 

(27.)  The  paint  employed  in  various  parts  of  the  ship  is  an 
important  subject  for  consideration.  Designed  principally  for 
the  preservation  of  the  wood,  we  desire  that  as  much  of  it  may 
be  used,  at  proper  times,  as  is  likely  to  contribute  to  this  object. 
In  so  far  as  it  is  used  for  mere  ornament,  it  should  give  way  to 
certain  considerations  of  health.  Of  this  the  medical  officer  may 
consider  himself  the  best  judge.  Fashion  has  established  great 
uniformity  in  the  manner  of  painting  the  outside.  This  is  always 
black,  with  a  white,  red,  or  gold  streak ;  and  some  variety  in 
width,  color,  and  situation  of  this  streak  is  left  to  individual 
fancy.  There  is  no  material  inconvenience  in  this  fashion  except 
in  warm  climates.  The  rays  of  the  sun  striking  the  side  of  a 
ship  increases  its  temperature,  the  degree  of  increase  depending 
much  on  the  color.  This  increased  temperature  is  communicated 
to  the  interior,  and  may  seriously  incommode  those  on  board.  In 
iron  ships  especially,  the  disadvantages  of  black  paint  are  very 
great.  There  are  many  vessels,  particularly  small  coasters,  in 
which  the  interests  of  health  and  the  preservation  of  the  ship, 
should  control  the  color,  rather  than  any  idea  of  taste  or  fashion. 
Any  fancy  color,  or  even  varnish,  is  certainly  better  than  black. 
Our  river  steamboats  are  generally  painted  white,  the  very  best 
color ;  and  there  are  many  good  reasons  to  be  pleased  with  it. 
Our  public  vessels,  when  laid  up,  are  generally  painted  a  dull 
yellow  color,  much  better  than  black,  where  the  only  object  is  the 
preservation  of  the  ship. 

(28.)  There  may  be  some  military  advantage  in  the  black  color 
of  ships-of-war ;  but  probably  various  shades  of  lead  color,  in 
the  form  of  zebra  stripes,  or  leopard  spots,  would,  under  cer- 
tain circumstances,  be  better.  We  will,  however,  leave  this  for 
the  discussion  of  others.  Black,  we  think,  should  not  be  used 
for  other  parts  of  the  ship.  The  interior  of  bulwarks,  the  comb- 
ings of  hatches,  and  other  parts  about  deck,  are  better  in  reality, 


30  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  29. 

and  neater  and  in  better  taste,  of  the  natural  color  of  clean  wood, 
produced  by  scraping  and  scrubbing,  or  by  painted  imitations  of 
the  proper  color.  The  best  arrangement  of  colors — best  for  the 
preservation  of  the  wood  and  for  avoiding  bad  effects  on  the  eye- 
sight— is  to  paint  the  broad  surfaces  white  or  nearly  w^iite,  with 
occasional  stripes  or  mouldings  of  wood  color,  buff,  or  green. 
There  is  so  little  green  on  the  broad  ocean,  that  it  always  pro- 
duces a  pleasant  impression.  The  ship  below  deck  should  be 
painted  white,  and  the  only  important  consideration  connected 
with  it  occurs  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  renew  the  paint  in 
the  course  of  a  cruise. 

(29.)  The  effects  of  tar  and  pitch  on  the  salubrity  of  the  ves- 
sel are  in  every  way  advantageous.  The  vapor  is  sometimes 
offensive,  but  custom  reconciles  us  to  it,  and  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances it  can  do  no  harm.  When  pitch  is  cold  and  hard  it 
gives  off  very  little  vapor.  An  important  incidental  advantage 
is  that  the  vapor  is  very  offensive  to  most  insects,  and  it  thus  has 
much  influence  in  limiting  their  numbers. 


CHAPTER    III. 

RECEIVING   THE   CREW — MAX   OYEEBOAED. 

(30.)  August  25th. — The  marines  march  on  board  from  their 
barracks,  the  rest  of  the  crew  come  from  the  receiving  ship,  the 
flag  is  hoisted,  and  the  ship  is  regularly  in  commission.  We  have 
to  study  the  character  and  condition  of  this  crew — these  sailors 
and  these  marines — so  as  to  become  somewhat  acquainted  with  our 
shipmates.  The  employment  of  the  sailor,  or  rather  his  surround- 
ings, have  usually  been  such,  so  wretched  and  degrading,  that  not 
many,  except  the  most  miserable,  could  be  induced  to  accept  this 
occupation  knowingly.  The  best  recruits  are  the  sons  of  fisher- 
men, who  live  in  sight  of  the  ocean,  and  are  accustomed  to  it 
from  their  infancy.  Such  recruits  are  furnished  by  the  islands 
and  coasts  of  New  England,  and  still  more  by  the  countries  bor- 
dering on  the  Baltic.  There  are  a  few  recruits  brought  forward 
by  the  reading  of  Robiixson  Crusoe ;  but  these,  and  all  others 
brought  into  the  service  by  the  romance  of  the  ocean,  are  very 
glad  to  escape  after  a  short  experience.  But  not  a  few  are  out- 
casts from  their  families  on  account  of  worthlessness  and  crime, 
some  of  them  escaping  the  hot  pursuit  of  the  officers  of  justice 
through  the  shipping  rendezvous.  There  are  many  young  men 
in  every  community,  excellent  in  all  other  respects,  who,  from 
want  of  force  of  character,  or  even  of  opportunity,  fail  to  estab- 
lish themselves  in  any  employment,  until  they  are  willing  to  ac- 
cept almost  anything  which  aifords  a  fair  prospect  of  a  constant 
means  of  livelihood.  They  often  possess  excellent  abilities,  and 
succeed  well  in  whatever  they  happen  ultimately  to  adopt  as  their 
vocation ;  of  these  the  navy  gets  a  share. 

(31.)  The  number  of  good  and  reliable  seamen  for  the  pur- 
poses of  modern  commerce,  and  to  supply  recruits  for  the  navy, 
is  utterly  insufficient.  Hence  it  is  necessary  to  do  the  best  we 
can  with  such  men  as  are  to  be  obtained.     With  the  discomforts 


32  NAVAL   HYGIENE.  [  §  32. 

which  necessarily  belong  to  sea  life,  and  the  additional  MTctched- 
ness  occasionally  added  by  caprice  and  cupidity  and  indifference, 
it  is  generally  the  case  that  the  better  sort  of  men,  unleas  they  re- 
ceive promotion,  or  very  good  treatment,  are  apt  to  make  an 
effort  to  escape  the  service  at  the  end  of  the  first  cruise,  or  even 
sooner.  Some  of  the  best  of  them  succeed ;  but  others,  failing  to 
establish  themselves,  get  into  the  sailor  boarding-houses.  They 
are  soon  hopelessly  in  debt,  without  any  resource  but  to 
ship  again.  They  receive  an  advance  of  pay  to  discharge  old 
debts,  and  if  they  find  an  opportunity  are  pretty  sure  to  desert 
Avithout  caring  to  return  the  money  thus  advanced.  They  are 
kept  by  placing  them  on  board  after  the  ship  is  removed  from  the 
wharf,  and  by  guarding  them  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  escape. 
The  unhappy  men  thus  detained,  and  without  sufficient  force  of 
character  to  keep  out  of  the  situation,  form  the  typical  sailor ; 
they  are  subjected  to  such  discipline  as  is  necessary  to  obtain  from 
them  a  fair  amount  of  useful  labor.  But  the  worst  of  it  is  that 
the  whole  crew  are  subjected  to  nearly  the  same  discipline,  though 
they  do  not  all  need  it. 

(32.)  Much  is  now  being  done  to  improve  the  character  of  the 
sailor,  and  with  very  encouraging  success.  But  the  time  is  per- 
haps distant  when  young  men  will  choose  the  sailor's  profession 
as  they  do  almost  any  other  laborious  employment.  In  the  navy 
men  have  such  inducements  to  re-enter  that  a  large  proportion 
come  back  before  they  are  so  reduced  in  money  and  reputation  as 
to  have  no  choice.  The  abolition  of  flogging  has  brought  more 
thought  and  more  common  sense  into  the  investigation  and  punish- 
ment of  various  petty  offences ;  and  there  have  thus  been  intro- 
duced into  the  service  many  comforts  and  indulgences  of  which 
men  may  occasionally  be  deprived  by  way  of  punishment.  The 
entire  crew  is  no  longer  kept  continuously  on  board  by  the  year, 
not  permitted  to  visit  shore  at  all,  merely  because  some  of  them 
would  get  drunk.  There  is  evidently  great  improvement  in  this 
business,  so  that  men  have  less  repugnance  to  the  employment  on 
this  account.  The  system  of  honorable  discharges  has  conferred 
a  very  great  benefit,  as  the  drunkard  and  the  escaped  convict  no 
longer  hold  as  good  a  character  at  the  naval  rendezvous  as  the 
correct  and  well-behaved.  They  often  find  this  resource  closed 
against  them,  while  tlie  owner  of  the  honorable  discharge  entere 


§  34.  ]  RECRUITS — RECRUITING.  33 

as  soon  as  he  pleases,  with  the  advantage  of  a  gratuity  0(iual  to 
three  months'  pay,  and  a  very  nuieh  better  chanee  of  promotion. 
Nearly  every  sailor,  with  these  advantages  before  his  eyes,  makes 
some  effort  to  gain  this  honorable  discharge.  Drunkenness,  with 
its  consequent  disorders,  and  some  others  formerly  in  fashion,  has 
ceased  to  be  admired  and  imitated  as  heroism.  Correct  (!onduct 
has  become  the  rule.  The  system  of  honorable  discharges  is 
gradually  being  extended  so  as  to  embrace  marines,  firemen  and 
coalheavers ;  it  should  include  every  enlisted  man. 

(33.)  The  crew  of  our  ship  are  mostly  honorably  discharged 
men,  the  rendezvous  having  for  some  months  been  closed  against 
all  others.  The  deficiency  of  landsmen  required  to  make  uj)  the 
complement,  was  promptly  made  up  after  the  arrival  of  the  order 
to  place  the  ship  in  commission. 

August  2,9th. — Some  of  our  crew  have  already  been  to  sea  in 
other  vessels  since  their  enlistment,  and  among  them  are  a  number 
of  invalids  returned  from  the  station  to  which  we  are  probably 
destined.  On  the  recommendation  of  a  medical  survey  these 
invalids  are  returned  to  the  receiving  ship,  to  be  sent  to  the  naval 
hospital. 

•  (34.)  The  physical  fitness  of  recruits  is  determined  by  an  in- 
spection which  has  reference  to  health,  form,  size,  age,  and  mus- 
cular po^ver.  The  qualifications  of  naval  recruits  cliiFer  some- 
what from  those  of  the  military  service  on  land.  Deficient 
strength  of  the  foot,  as  exhibited  in  the  deformity  called  "  splay 
feet,"  may  disqualify  a  soldier  on  a  march,  but  it  is  no  serious 
disqualification  in  a  seaman,  who  has  very  little  marching  to  do. 
Extreme  youth  is  not  so  objectionable,  as  there  are  no  fatiguing 
marches,  in  which  fatigued  and  lame  boys  have  to  be  left  to  perish 
by  the  roadsides ;  but  if  the  ordinary  labors  are  too  severe  for  them, 
they  can  be  relieved  from  any  excessive  labor.  In  fact  youth- 
fulness  is  rather  an  advantage  in  a  new  recruit,  as  life  at  sea  is 
of  such  a  character  that  an  adult  accommodates  himself  to  it  with 
extreme  difficulty.  Hence  the  limit  in  regard  to  age  for  naval 
recruits  is  (13)  thirteen  years,  height  (56)  fifty-six  inches.  The 
limit  of  age  in  the  other  direction  is,  for  landsmen,  (33)  thirty- 
three  years,  over  which  age  they  are  not  received  except  for 
special  duties. 

3 


34  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  34. 

Many  important  thing's  in  this  connection  are  stated  in  num- 
bers, so  as  to  admit  of  tabular  arrangement  for  easy  reference  and 
comparison.  The  ages  and  heights  are  so  expressed  in  the  de- 
scriptive lists.  Some  officers  have  a  fancy  for  very  tall  men ;  but 
when  the  men  are  not  otherwise  well  developed  this  is  not  an  ad- 
vantage. This  height  is  often  made  up  of  a  pair  of  long  legs,  which 
produces  an  awkward  weakness,  somewhat  like  marching  on 
a  pair  of  stilts.  Any  casual  inspection  gives  sufficient  evidence 
of  the  existence  of  this  conformation  when  excessive ;  but  perhaps 
it  would  be  useful  to  determine  tendencies  in  this  direction  in 
inches.  The  recruit  might  be  made  to  sit  on  a  level  bench  with 
a  straight  back  sufficiently  high,  graduated  to  inches  and  frac- 
tions. This  would  measure  the  length  from  the  ischia  to  the 
vertex,  which  deducted  from  the  height  would  give  the  lower  ex- 
tremities with  sufficient  precision.  In  studying  the  development 
of  children,  this  would  be  a  very  useful  measurement,  and  very 
convenient.  The  measurements  of  the  chest  are  very  valuable, 
as  evidence  of  the  healthy  working  of  lungs.  The  muscular 
power  might  be  measured  by  acting  on  a  spiral  spring  and  stating 
the  result  in  the  number  of  pounds  lifted. 

The  following  table  embraces  too  small  a  number  of  subjects, 
perhaps,  to  affi^rd  any  general  conclusion  of  value.  The  average 
height  of  seamen  is  probably  somewhat  less  than  that  of  men 
of  the  same  age  in  .laborious  occupations  elsewhere.  This,  how- 
ever, is  not  certain,  the  average  of  this  table,  which  includes 
youths  of  about  (16)  sixteen,  being  (67)  sixty-seven  inches,  not 
much  less  than  the  average  of  adults  elsewhere.  The  firemen  and 
coalheavers  are  physically  the  best  men.  The  marines  show  nearly 
the  same  average  height ;  but  none  are  enlisted  for  this  service 
who  are  less  than  (64)  sixty-four  inches. 


35.] 


RECRUITING — MAN   OVERBOARD. 


35 


Average  Age  and  Height,  according  to  Bates  of  V((rious  Groups 
of  Enlisted  Men. 


Kates. 

a 
> 

Age. 

Height. 

■a 

5 

be 

o 

6 
bo 

« 
a) 

1 
"3 

1 

o 

.a 

'S 
a 

6- 

< 

Years. 

Years. 

Yr.  Mo. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Petty  officers,  seamen,    . 

31 

60 

26 

37     3 

74 

63 

66.23 

Petty  officers,  not  seamen, 

11 

48 

22 

31     2 

72 

64| 

66.34 

Seamen, 

23 

42 

23 

30    7 

70 

61i 

65.62 

Ordinary  seamen, .     .     . 

50 

42 

20 

25    5 

72 

61 

66.23 

Landsmen, 

34 

31 

21 

23     1 

70J 

60| 

66.50 

Boys,  under  20  years,     . 

3 

20 

16 

17    7 

67i 

60 

64.47 

Servants,  negroes, .     .     . 

4 

30 

19 

25     0 

68| 

62 

66.63 

Servants,  mulattoes,   .     . 

10 

50 

17 

25    9 

67  J 

58 

63.03 

Firemen, 

23 

40 

23 

29     5 

70^ 

63J 

67.61 

Coal-heavers,     .... 

21 

28 

19 

23    7 

72^ 

63J 

67.29 

Marines, 

43 

46 

21 

26    0 

73 

64 

67.50 

Aggregate  and  general 
average, 

253 

60 

16 

27     6 

74 

58 

67.05 

(35.)  August  2>lst. — We  steam  down  the  river  to  the  powder 
magazine,  and  we  have  a  startling  incident — a  man  overboard. 
The  ship  moving  under  steam,  is  obliged  to  move  too  fast  for  the 
safety  of  two  boats  towing  astern  ;  and  the  consequence  is  that 
they  are  both  filled  with  water,  one  of  them  passing  so  far  beneath 
the  surface  that  the  men  in  her  are  left  swimming  in  the  current. 
Others  follow  their  impulses,  and  pursue  the  proper  measures  to 
rescue  the  men  from  the  water,  while  we  try  to  remember  and  ar- 
range the  proper  means  to  restore  life,  in  case  one  of  them  should 
be  brought  on  board  in  a  state  of  suspended  animation.  We  are 
greatly  in  want  of  evidence  of  the  special  efficacy  of  the  measures 
usually  adoj)ted  for  this  purpose.     We  know  that  a  person  with- 


36  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  37. 

drawn  from  tlie  Avater  within  a  minute,  generally  recover  without 
any  particular  assistance.  If  he  slioukl  remain  a  little  longer  in 
the  water,  his  chances  of  recovery  are  greatly  diminished ;  and  if 
he  should  remain  three  or  four  minutes  wholly  immersed,  the 
cliances  are  that  he  will  not  survive,  with  all  the  assistance  which 
we  may  be  able  to  give.  But  cases  do  occur  of  recovery  after  in- 
tervals of  nearly  an  hour,  without  our  being  able  to  say  which 
of  the  means  adopted  produce  the  result,  or  indeed  whether  they 
had  anything  to  do  with  it.  Our  choice  of  remedies  is,  therefore, 
guided  more  by  our  ideas  of  physiological  fitness  than  by  any  of 
the  results  of  experience. 

(36.)  The  first,  the  only  object  is  to  re-establish  respiration;  so 
we  remove  promptly  whatever  we  perceive  to  interfere  with  that 
process,  and  adopt  measures  to  produce  respiration  artificially. 
As  soon  as  the  drowned  man  is  removed  from  the  water  he  should 
be  placed  on  his  side,  and  ])referably  on  the  right  side.  One  per- 
son should  support  the  head,  opening  a  little  the  jaws,  removing 
anything  which  may  be  found  to  oppose  the  entrance  of  air, 
emptying  water  or  mucus  from  the  mouth  by  turning  the  face 
downwards,  even  holding  the  head  lower  than  the  rest  of  the 
body  a  moment  for  this  purpose.  Another  person  acts  on  the 
chest  and  abdomen  in  such  a  way  as  to  imitate,  as  nearly  as  possi- 
blej  the  natural  movements  of  respiration  by  pressing  the  lower 
part  of  the  chest  and  stomach  toM'ard  the  spine,  and  allowing 
them  to  return  by  natural  elasticity  at  the  rate  of  twelve  or  fifteen 
times  a  minute,  as  rapidly  as  a  person  would  count  five  deliber- 
ately. During  the  minute  occupied  by  these  operations,  others 
should  })rovide,  if  possible,  dry  flannel  clothing,  or  if  nothing 
better  can  be  had,  dry  hay  or  straw.  The  wet  clothing  is  to  be 
promptly  and  gently  removed,  and  the  body  wrapped  in  dry,  i\nd 
if  convenient,  warm  flannel  blankets.  But  it  is  not  desirable  to 
warm  the  body  materially  until  there  is  some  evidence  of  re-es- 
tablished respiration. 

(37.)  The  clearing  of  the  mouth  and  the  artilicMal  respiration 
may  jierhaps  be  accomplished  by  one  person,  as  effectually  by  Dr. 
Marshall  Hall's  ready  method  as  by  any  other  means.  The  body 
is  placed  on  the  side  as  before,  one  hand  of  the  patient  against  or 
partly  under  the  forehead  to  prevent  the  face  from  coming  too 
rudely  in  contact  with  the  floor,  the  other  hand  is  placed  under 
the  stomach  with  the  arm  across  the  l)odv,  the  bodv  is  then  rolled 


§  38.  ]  ARTIFICIAL    RESPIRATION.  37 

forward  on  the  stonuich  and  back  to  the  side  alternately,  about 
fifteen  times  in  a  minute. 

Nearly  all  who  are  to  recover  at  all,  will  show  some  sign  of  re- 
turning life  during  the  minute  or  two  occupied  by  these  first  cares. 
The  patient  should  now  be  carried  gently  on  a  board — not  picked 
up  by  the  feet  and  shoulders  with  the  head  hanging  down — to  a 
place  of  more  convenience  for  any  further  measures  that  may  be 
deemed  advisable.  The  body  should  be  wiped  dry,  clothed  in 
flannel,  placed  on  a  mattress  between  two  blankets.  The  move- 
ments of  artificial  respiration  should  be  continued  perseveringly, 
whatever  else  may  appear  necessary.  The  body  should  occasion- 
ally be  placed  on  the  side,  and  the  head  so  inclined  as  to  favor 
the  discharge  of  water  or  mucus.  If  the  discharge  be  tenacious, 
it  may  be  assisted  by  the  finger  or  other  convenient  instrument. 
If  the  teeth  close,  they  may  be  kept  apart  by  a  piece  of  soft  wood. 
If  the  tongue  fall  back  into  the  throat,  as  it  is  pretty  sure  to  do 
with  the  patient  on  his  back,  it  must  be  seized,  pulled  forward 
and  between  the  jaw  teeth  on  one  side  or  the  other,  and  kept  there  ; 
even  a  piece  of  wire  or  a  stout  thread  might  be  passed  through 
the  tongue  to  hold  it  from  falling  back  and  stopping  uj)  the  fauces. 

Artificial  respiration  has  been  recommended  by  inflating  the 
lungs  by  the  use  of  a  pipe  or  a  bellows,  or  from  mouth  to  mouth. 
But  this  is,  perhaps,  a  more  difficult  operation  than  is  generally 
imagined.  It  results  sometimes,  in  inflating  the  stomach  instead 
of  the  lungs ;  which  may  be  prevented  by  pressing  the  larynx 
down  and  back  against  the  spine,  so  as  to  close  the  gullet. 

(38.)  The  Eoyal  Medical  and  Chirurgical  Society  recommend 
the  method  of  Dr.  Sylvester,  which,  instead  of  compressing,  ex- 
pands the  chest,  thus  imitating  deep  inspiration,  as  follows :  In 
cases  of  drowning  the  following  plan  may,  in  the  first  instance, 
be  practiced :  Place  the  body  with  the  face  do\vnward  and  hang- 
ing a  little  over  the  edge  of  the  table,  shutter,  or  board,  raised  to 
an  angle  of  thirty  degrees,  so  that  the  head  may  be  lower  than 
the  feet.  Open  the  mouth  and  draw  the  tongue  forward.  Keep 
the  body  in  this  posture  a  few  seconds  longer  if  fluid  escapes. 
The  escape  of  fluid  may  be  assisted  by  pressing  once  or  twice 
upon  the  back.  All  obstruction  to  the  passage  of  air  to  and  from 
the  lungs  should  be  at  once,  so  far  as  practicable,  removed  ; 
the  mouth  and  nostrils,  for  example,  should  be  cleaned  from  all 


38  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  39. 

foreig-n  matters  or  adhering  inueus.  In  the  absence  of  natural 
respiration,  artificial  respiration,  by  Dr.  Sylvester's  plan,  should 
])e  forthwith  employed  in  the  following  manner :  The  body  being 
laid  on  its  back,  either  on  a  flat  surface,  or  better,  on  a  plane  in- 
clined a  little  from  the  feet  upwards,  a  firm  cushion  or  some 
similar  support  should  be  placed  under  the  shoulders,  the  head 
being  kept  in  a  line  with  the  trunk.  The  tongue  should  be 
drawn  forward  so  as  to  project  a  little  from  the  side  of  the  mouth; 
then  the  arms  should  be  drawn  upward  till  they  nearly  meet  over 
the  head,  and  at  once  lowered  and  replaced  at  the  side.  This 
should  be  followed  immediately  by  moderate  pressure  with  both 
hands  on  the  lower  part  of  the  sternum.  This  process  is  to  be 
repeated  twelve  or  fourteen  times  in  a  minute.  If  no  natural 
respiratory  efforts  supervene,  a  dash  of  hot  water  (120°  F.)  or 
cold  water  may  excite  respiratory  efforts.  The  temperature  of 
the  body  sliould  be  maintained  by  friction,  warm  blankets,  dry 
clothing,  etc.  {Am.  Journ.  Med.  Sc,  xliv,  516). 

As  soon  as  there  is  any  appearance  of  re-established  respiration, 
— gasping,  sobbing,  or  catching  breath — we  may  relinquish  all 
measures  in  this  direction.  During  the  operations  already  de- 
scribed, preparations  should  be  made  for  warming  the  body.  Hot 
water,  even  boiling,  may  be  poured  into  any  convenient  vessel — 
a  bottle  or  tin  cup  would  answer — and  we  should  pass  it  gradu- 
ally over  the  flannel  clothing,  about  the  stomach,  chest,  and  back, 
keeping  it  more  particularly  about  the  pit  of  the  stomach.  Other 
bottles,  not  too  hot,  may  be  applied  to  the  feet.  Many  other 
means  have  been  recommended  with  more  or  less  confidence, 
among  them  an  enema  of  tobacco-smoke,  with  complicated  appa- 
ratus, not  likely  to  be  on  hand  when  wanted.  This  enema  may 
be  administered  if  required,  with  a  common  clay  pipe,  wliich, 
when  well  charged  with  tobacco  and  lighted,  may  be  introduced, 
and  tlie  smoke  blown  through  by  a  common  bellows,  or  by  blow- 
ing through  a  second  pipe  inverted  over  the  first. 

(39.)  When  animation  is  restored,  the  patient  should  be  kept 
comfortable  in  his  bed,  and  not  disturbed  by  useless  visits  or  con- 
versation. If  he  has  been  long  in  the  water  he  will  probably 
require  further  medical  care. 

But  happily  our  men  returned  on  board  pretty  well  exhausted 
by  swinniiing.  A¥e  had  no  occasion  for  tiie  various  appliances 
of  which  we  had  been  thinking. 


CHAPTER    lY. 

THE   SEA EOLLINCI    AND    PITCHING. 

(40.)  September  1st. — Having  received  powder  from  the 
magazine  near  Fort  Mifflin,  we  move  slowly  down  the  river  and 
proceed  to  sea.  We  might  be  a  little  sentimental,  we  certainly 
feel  so,  over  the  tramping  around  with  the  capstan,  the  clinking 
of  chains  as  link  by  link  comes  in,  the  departure  of  friends,  the 
movement  of  the  vessel  on  the  smooth  surface  of  the  river,  pass- 
ing the  Breakwater,  the  departure  of  the  pilot,  and  our  perfect 
isolation  from  all  but  our  small  floating  community.  Entering 
the  domains  of  the  broad  ocean,  we  are  instantly  conscious  of  a 
great  change  in  the  physical  influences  that  surround  us.  The 
most  characteristic  of  these  is  the  oscillating  movement  in  obedi- 
ence to  the  various  impulses  of  the  waves.  This  movement  is  in 
three  directions,  vertical,  rolling,  and  pitching.  The  vertical 
movement  is  felt  principally  near  the  ends  of  the  ship.  Each 
end  is  alternately  raised  to  the  top  of  a  wave  and  falls  into  the 
trough  of  the  sea.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  waves  six  or  eight 
feet  high  to  succeed  each  other  at  intervals  of  about  five  seconds; 
and  a  ship  frequently  receives  nearly  this  amount  of  vertical 
motion,  with  this  degree  of  frequency,  in  fine  weather.  It  is  not 
rare  for  this  movement  up  and  down  to  be  so  sudden  as  to  make 
us  feel  that  we  are  about  to  be  tossed  into  the  air,  the  ship  sub- 
siding so  rapidly  that  the  feet  can  scarcely  be  kept  in  contact  with 
the  deck.  There  is  no  doubt  that  occasionally  in  rough  weather, 
there  is  actually  vertical  motion  enough  near  the  ends  of  the  ship, 
to  toss  an  object  some  distance  into  the  air.  But  the  feeling  of 
discomfort  and  insecurity  from  the  sudden  sinking  of  the  floor  on 
which  we  stand,  is  sufficient  to  keep  everybody  from  these  parts 
of  the  ship,  when  there  is  much  motion  of  this  kind. 

The  motion  called  roUing,  is  the  rotation  laterally  of  the  ship, 
back  and  forth  on  its  axis.     This  movement  is  very  considerable,. 


40  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  42. 

even  in  large  ships,  sometimes  amounting  to  (20^)  twenty  degrees 
on  each  side.  A  considerable  amount  of  muscular  exertion  is 
necessary  to  keep  the  body  in  anything  like  a  vertical  position 
under  this  constant  change  of  inclination  of  the  surface.  Stand- 
ing on  deck  is  a  laborious  occupation. 

Pitching  is  mainly  due  to  irregularity  of  speed,  as  affected  by 
the  waves.  The  oscillations  are  not  nearly  so  rapid  as  those  of 
rolling.  The  ship  gradually  ascends  the  slope  of  a  wave,  reaches 
the  summit,  balances  like  a  scale-beam,  the  forward  end  prepon- 
derates, and  we  descend  an  inclined  plane  to  the  trough  of  the 
sea,  attaining  great  speed  as  we  descend ;  we  strike,  pei'haps,  with 
great  force,  the  next  coming  wave,  slowly  ascend  to  its  crest,  and 
thus  we  go  on  repeating  the  motion.  The  rapid  descent  to  the 
trough  of  the  sea,  with  the  plunge  of  the  forward  part  of  the 
ship  into  the  coming  wave,  suggests  the  expressive  name  of  this 
motion.  It  goes  on  pretty  smoothly  with  the  sea  aft  and  the 
wind  on  the  quarter ;  but  Math  a  head  sea,  the  waves  and  the 
bows  of  the  ship  come  into  such  violent  collision,  that  it  is  neces- 
sary to  reduce  sail  in  order  to  prevent  the  ship  from  being  de- 
stroyed by  the  prodigious  force  of  the  concussion. 

(41.)  It  requires  some  little  muscular  exertion  to  stand  on  the 
substantial  earth,  but  the  case  is  very  different  on  board  ship, 
where  the  surface  is  ra])idly  inclined  first  to  the  one  side  and  then 
to  the  other,  and  is  gliding  rapidly  forward  and  stopping  with  a 
sudden  concussion,  or  is  oscillating  vertically  with  velocity  nearly 
sufficient  to  toss  us  into  the  air.  We  think  it  not  difficult  to 
comprehend,  that  when  all  these  motions  are  combined  in  an  ex- 
•  aggerated  degree,  as  in  great  storms,  it  is  exceedingly  laborious 
exertion  merely  to  stand  up,  and  walking  is  quite  out  of  the 
question.  In  ordinary  states  of  -weather,  men  do  walk,  more  or 
less ;  but  at  first  there  is  some  difficulty  in  accommodating  the 
movements  of  the  body  to  the  digadvantageous  circumstances. 
This  is  overcome  somewhat  by  time  and  practice,  and  then  we 
have  our  sea-legs  on.  Being  once  practi(;ed  in  these  movements, 
we  practice  them  instinctively,  even  on  shore,  where  there  is  no 
need  of  them.  Hence  the  sailor  is  known  by  his  walk,  his  wide 
straddling  feet,  the  swaying  to-and-fro  of  his  body,  and  the  bal- 
ancing with  his  arms. 

(42.)  Even   lying  in  bed,  these  irregular  oscillations  give  us 


§  42.  ]  THE   SLEEPING-BERTH.  41 

troul)lo.  In  the  ordinary  xlccphuj-Jx'rth,  the  rolling  is,  ut  times, 
sufficient  to  throw  ns  ont  of  bed,  if  it  were  not  for  the  boards  at 
the  sides,  converting  the  berth  into  a  sort  of  trough.  .Vs  it  is, 
we  are  rolled  about  in  a  most  uncomfortable  way,  till  we  learn  to 
grasp  these  boards  in  our  liands  and  hold  on  during  sleep.  The 
rougher  the  weather,  the  more  firmly  we  grasp — as  the  bird  in 
windy  weather  grasps  more  firmly  to  the  branch  of  the  tree  on 
which  he  is  perched.  Lying  in  a  hammock  or  cot  hung  to  the 
beams,  so  as  to  swing  about  and  accommodate  itself  to  the  move- 
ments  of  the  ship,  is  much  less  subject  to  these  inconveniences. 
There  are,  no  doubt,  real  modifications  effected  in  all  our  organic 
functions  by  these  peculiar  movements,  both  directly  and  by  the 
constant  need  of  muscular  exertion  to  maintain  the  equilibrium. 
But  these,  so  fiir,  have  only  been  suspected,  not  distinctly  indi- 
cated, except  the  singular  violent  perturbation  known  under  the 
name  of  sea-sickness. 


CHAPTER    \. 


SEA-SICKNESS. 


(43.)  As  soon  as  we  meet  the  swell  of  the  ocean,  most  of  those 
who  have  not  sailed  before,  and  some  of  those  who  have,  begin 
to  feel  unable  to  keep  on  their  feet;  they  feel  unaccountably  help- 
less ;  soon  tlioy  have  vertigo  and  nausea ;  and  it  is  not  very  long 
before  the  impulse  to  empty  the  stomach  becomes  irresistible. 
This  is  the  miserable  beginning  of  the  sailor's  rough  profession. 
The  characteristic  symptoms  are  headache,  vertigo,  nausea,  pale, 
cool,  moist  skin,  muscular  relaxation,  increased  flow  of  saliva, 
sunken  features,  and  disagreeable  hallucinations  of  the  senses  of 
taste  and  smell.  In  fact,  the  symptoms  are  nearly  the  same  that 
are  caused  by  the  operation  of  an  ordinary  emetic.  In  bad  cases 
the  vomitings  are  frequently  repeated,  and  the  muscular  prostra- 
tion and  the  general  feeling  of  wretchedness,  are  such  as  to  ren- 
der the  sufferer  utterly  indifferent  to  everything  around  him. 

(44.)  Individual  susceptibilities  in  this  disease  vary  exceedingly. 
The  relaxation  of  the  oesophagus  is  sometimes  incomplete,  and 
then  the  spasmodic  action  of  the  stomach  and  diaphragm  is  ^'ery 
painful.  Occasionally  the  nausea  and  vertigo  arc  distressing  and 
persistent,  lasting  several  weeks  without  any  vomiting.  Some- 
times the  vomiting  comes  on  suddenly,  witliout  much  antecedent 
distress.  Sometimes  obstinate  constipation  is  the  only  symptom  ; 
and  some  of  the  captains  between  New  York  and  Liverpool,  are 
said  never  to  have  an  alvine  motion  between  the  two  ports. 
There  are  some  rare  cases  of  individuals  who  appear  not  to  suffer 
at  all.  Most  persons  obtain  comparative  exemption  from  suffer- 
ing after  a  week  or  two.  There  are  very  few,  however,  who  do 
not  suffer  more  or  less  from  vertigo  and  headache,  and  a  feeling 
of  discomfort  at  the  epigastrium,  if  not  nausea.  Sometimes  this 
feeling  is  compared  to  the  sensation  of  hunger;  and  I  liave 
known  a    conimtmdar,  who  had  experienced    this    feeling   very 


§  45.  ]  SEA-SICKNESS.  43 

often, say  tliat  roiigli  weather  always  made  lihu  feel  hungry,  even 
ininuHliately  after  his  meals.  He  always  feels  hungry  while  the 
storm  lasts.  All  that  is  distressing  about  this  disease  subsides 
soon  after  landing  or  getting  into  harbor.  The  hallucinations  of 
sight  and  touch  continue,  in  a  degree,  for  some  time;  the  trees 
and  liouses  seem  to  swing  about,  and  our  senses  feil  to  assure  us 
of  the  steadiness  of  the  earth. 

(45.)  The  cause  of  this  singular  disease  is  certainly  the  irregu- 
lar motion  of  the  ship  ;  but  we  are  unable  to  say  with  any  cer- 
tainty how  this  cause  produces  such  effects.  One  of  the  oldest 
theories  is  that  it  is  caused  by  fear ;  but  probably  no  one  Avho  has 
felt  it  refers  it  to  this  cause ;  and  besides  we  have  never  heard  of 
anything  like  it  caused  by  fear  merely  elsewhere.  The  reign  of 
terror  in  France,  and  the  Inquisition  in  Spain,  afford  no  account 
of  such  a  disease.  Another  explanation  refers  it  to  the  muscular 
exertion  necessary  to  maintain  the  body  in  equilibrium  ;  but  we 
do  not  observe  that  anything  like  sea-sickness  is  ordinarily  pro- 
duced by  mere  muscular  exertion,  however  severe  or  long  con- 
tinued. A  third  theory  refers  the  disease  to  the  agitation  of  the 
abdominal  viscera,  with  the  constant  friction  among  themselves ; 
but  running,  and  especially  riding  a  hard-trotting  horse,  would 
shake  the  viscera  quite  as  much  without  causing  the  least  nausea. 
The  disease  has  been  attributed  to  the  agitation  of  the  brain  it- 
self against  its  bony  case ;  and  this  theory  has  great  plausi- 
bilit)'.  The  symptoms  are  analogous  to  those  caused  by  simple 
concussion  of  the  brain.  Of  course,  as  the  violence  of  agitation 
is  not  sufficient  to  break  down  the  tissue  of  the  brain,  such  symp- 
toms as  belong  exclusively  to  the  most  violent  cases  of  cerebral 
concussion  are  absent ;  but  the  symptoms  which  belong  to  the 
milder  forms  of  concussion  are  present,  exaggerated  in  degree,  as 
should  be  expected  from  the  continuance  of  the  cause.  But  this 
theor}^  will  not  stand  the  test  of  the  trotting  horse,  which  would 
agitate  the  brain  quite  as  roughly  against  its  bony  case.  And 
finally,  sea-sickness  has  been  attributed  to  nervous  derangement 
produced  through  the  senses  by  the  irregular  oscillatory  move- 
ments of  neighboring  objects  (Darwin).  To  this  it  can  only  be 
objected  that  the  proof  is  not  quite  conclusive.  Blind  persons,  it 
has  been  suggested,  may  be  sea-sick,  but  they  have  the  senses,  ex- 
cept sight,  active  enough,   and  are  certainly  very  conscious  of 


44  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  46. 

some  of  the  movements  about  them.  Swino:ing,  walking,  and 
riding  backward  in  a  carriage,  liave  been  observed  to  pro- 
duce similar  disturbance  in  a  milder  form.  This  last  theory  ex- 
plains the  fact  that  riding  backward  is  much  more  likely  to  pro- 
duce vertigo  and  nausea  than  riding  with  the  face  forward.  I 
have  known  the  symptoms  in  a  mild  degree  to  be  produced  by 
sitting  on  an  elevated  seat  near  the  sea,  and  Avatching  the  rollers 
breaking  over  a  bank  at  some  distance  from  the  beach.  Merely 
closing  the  eyes  sometimes  produces  considerable  relief.  Lying 
in  a  horizontal  position  with  the  eyes  closed,  in  a  well-balanced 
cot,  renders  the  affection  quite  bearable  in  nearly  all  cases.  Sitting 
on  deck  near  the  side  of  the  ship,  so  that  no  swinging  object  in- 
terferes with  a  steady  view  of  the  horizon,  is  known  to  produce 
great  relief,  the  horizon  and  the  clouds  near  it  being  the  only 
steady  objects  in  sight.  Altogether  we  must  be  nearly  right  in 
adopting  this  last  theory. 

(46.)  From  what  has  already  been  said  it  may  be  inferred  that 
there  is  no  effectual  remedy  for  sea-sickness,  except  to  get  on  land. 
It,  however,  admits  of  some  mitigations.  Freely  circulating  air 
is  a  great  advantage.  It  is  important  to  keep  as  far  as  pos- 
sible from  either  end  of  the  ship,  so  as  to  avoid  the  excessive 
vertical  motion.  It  seems  generally  best  to  remain  on  deck  as 
long  as  possible,  avoiding  much  observation  of  the  spars  and 
rigging,  but  in  preference  directing  the  view  to  the  distant  land 
or  horizon.  The  young,  and  those  who  are  to  be  sailors  by  pro- 
fession, should  continue  this  course,  partaking  moderately  of  food 
and  continuing  their  exercises,  if  possible,  in  the  intervals  of 
vomiting.  Some  of  the  boys  promptly  find  places  in  the  tops, 
where  the  exaggerated  motion  soon  excites  vomiting,  and  by  re- 
maining there  a  day  or  two  they  obtain  immunity  from  suffering 
in  other  parts  of  the  ship.  For  passengers  it  is  useless  to  struggle 
much  ill  this  way.  When  there  is  much  motion  and  they  find 
themselves  unable  to  keej)  up,  they  may  as  well  seek  the  most  com- 
fortable place  to  lie  down,  until  a  smooth  sea  enables  them  to  get 
on  their  feet  again.  It  is  worse  than  useless  to  swallow  drugs. 
It  is  disadvantageous  to  eat  full  meals  in  anticipation,  and  it  is 
still  worse  to  keep  the  stomach  quite  empty,  l*ersons  who  have 
suffered  much  and  are  recovering,  with  some  nausea  and  a  dis- 
gusting flavor  of  soap  alxmt  the  mouth,  derive  great  comfort  from 


§  47.  ]  SEA-VOYAGE    AS    A    REMEDY.  45 

the  use  of  certain  articles  of  food  of  very  decided  ilavor,  siicli  as 
smoked  herring  or  other  salt  fish,  broiled  ham,  ginger  cakes,  pre- 
served ginger,  etc.  Stimulating  and  aromatic  diinks  have  their 
use  here,  such  as  tea,  coffee,  wine,  rum,  brandy,  but  excess  even 
of  tea  or  coffee  may  do  harm.  Tliese  thing-s  are  likewase  useful 
in  preventing  the  disease  when  the  predisposition  is  not  very 
strong.  Any  aromatic  or  stimulant  may  be  occasionally  useful 
in  this  Avav,  as  well  as  any  common  article  of  food  of  very  de- 
cided flavor,  and  not  distasteful  to  the  patient. 

If  from  excessive  severity  of  the  disease  or  peculiarity  in  the 
condition  of  the  patient,  serious  accident  be  apprehended,  some 
additional  remedies  may  be  used,  as  ice-water,  lumps  of  ice, 
acidulated  drinks,  chloroform,  chloral  hydrate,  opiates,  endermi- 
cally  if  they  cannot  be  retained  in  the  stomach ;  and  also  the 
remedies  for  any  accident,  as  abortion,  which  may  be  particularly 
apprehended. 

(47.)  Sea- voyages  have  always  been  more  or  less  recommended 
as  a  remedy  for  diseases,  and  like  other  perturbations  of  the  sys- 
tem and  changes  of  habit,  they  may  have  occasionally  broken  up 
chronic  diseases.  We  should,  however,  always  prefer  some  more 
manageable  remedy.  The  motion  of  a  ship  increases  the  diffi- 
culties of  treating  fractures,  and  thus  sometimes  render  amputa- 
tion necessary  to  save  life. 


CHAPTER    YI. 

SOCIAL    INFLUENCES NOSTALGIA. 

"  When  o'er  the  silent  sea«  alone, 
For  days  and  nights  we've  cheerless  gone, 
Oh  they  who've  felt  it  know  how  sweet, 
Some  sunny  morn,  a  sail  to  meet ; 
Sparkling  at  once  is  every  eye ; 
Ship,  ahoy !  ship,  ahoy  !  the  joyful  cry. 
Then  sails  are  backed,  we  nearer  come. 
Kind  words  are  said  of  friends  and  home, 
And  soon,  too  soon,  we  part  with  pain. 
To  sail  o'er  silent  seas  again." 

Thomas  Moore. 

(48.)  In  the  last  two  chapters  ^ve  have  considered  some  of  the 
material  ups  and  downs  of  sea  life,  with  their  consequences.  Let 
us  now  examine  the  social  relations  and  moral  influences.  The 
crew  have  just  collected  from  various  parts  of  the  world,  and  the 
great  majority  of  them  have  no  personal  acquaintance,  except 
such  as  thev  have  formed  during  the  past  week  or  two,  on  board 
the  receiving  ship.  Each  one  has  separated  from  his  home,  his 
relations,  his  associates,  his  friends,  from  every  object  of  his 
affections  on  earth.  The  desolation  of  his  affections  appears  com- 
plete, but  hope  gilds  somewhat  the  future.  Some  of  the  men 
may  have  met  previously,  but  the  whole  business  of  forming 
friendships  and  antipathies,  and  selecting  companions,  is,  for  the 
most  ])art,  among  entire  strangers,  to  be  accomplished  without 
any  previous  knowledge  of  each  other.  We  wonder  and  find 
that  human  nature  is  capable  of  this.  The  officers  even,  for  the 
most  i^art,  meet  the  fii-st  time  in  their  lives,  at  the  na\w  yard 
where  the  ^]u\)  is  fitting  out,  without  any  other  introductictn  than 
the  order  which  each  one  has  received  to  report  for  duty,  on 
board  the  same  ship.  Conventionalities  veil  the  awkwardness  of 
this  introduction,  and  a  good  understanding  is  established  in  the 
beginning.    This  we  may  reasonably  hope  will  not  be  interrupted ; 


§  51.  ]  SOLITUDE    OF   THE    OCEAN.  47 

and  some  friendships  and  some  agreeable  soeial  relations  may 
eventually  spring  from  it. 

(49.)  This  breaking  up  of  old  soeial  relations  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  new,  is  accomplished  under  a  forced  intimacy,  which 
is  far  from  pleasant  to  a  person  of  any  refinement  of  feeling. 
The  crowdino"  together  of  so  many  and  such  diverse  characters, 
and  the  life  in  common,  which  admits  of  no  privacy,  day  or 
night,  would  seem  perfectly  intolerable ;  sailors,  however,  are  not 
very  conscious  of  the  social  or  moral  hardship  of  this  crowding. 
Of  its  physical  inconveniences,  the  want  of  space  for  exercise  or 
sleep,  and  the  contamination  of  the  atmosphere,  they  are  well 
aware.  The  officers,  whose  sensibilities  from  education  and  asso- 
ciation, are  more  refined,  are  relieved  in  some  degree  from  this 
annoyance.  They  have  each,  for  the  most  part,  a  small  room, 
about  six  feet  square,  to  which  the  proprietor  may  retire  when  he 
will,  to  commune  with  his  own  thoughts  and  enjoy  his  individual 
tastes ;  it  is  the  place  for  his  bed,  his  bureau,  his  library,  his 
museum  of  curiosities.  Prying  curiosity  and  discipline  very 
rarely  interfere  with  his  comfort  in  this  little  room. 

(50.)  The  first  few  days  pass  with  some  degree  of  constraint, 
but  we  converse,  we  form  social  circles,  we  cease  to  be  strangers. 
The  associations  thus  hastily  formed  have  not  always  that  con- 
geniality of  tastes  which  perpetuates  friendship,  or  those  dispari- 
ties which  render  friendly  social  relations  impossible.  There  is, 
hence,  some  variation  from  time  to  time  ill  the  various  circles, 
and  soon  something  like  social  order  grows  up.  This  vagabond- 
ism, this  breaking  up  of  all  social  relations,  every  two  or  three 
years,  is  the  great  annoyance,  the  great  hardship  of  naval  life. 

(51.)  Another  peculiar  influence,  is  the  monotonous  solitude  of 
the  ocean.  The  land  with  its  dim  outline  being  left  behind,  there 
is  nothing  in  sight  outside  of  the  ship,  except  sky  and  sea ;  none 
of  the  objects  which  ordinarily  induce  us  to  approach  a  window. 
A  bird,  a  fish,  or  a  bit  of  sea-weed  is  enough  to  excite  a  general 
commotion.  A  sail  in  sight,  even  so  distant  as  to  require  a  tele- 
scope to  see  it  at  all,  is  an  object  of  universal  interest.  If  it  comes 
near  enough  to  be  })lainly  seen,  it  is  thought  of  and  talked  of  for 
days.  But  should  it  approach  near  enough  for  the  few  usual 
inquiries — what  ship?  where  from?  whither  bound? — it  creates 
a  scene  of  enthusiasm,  of  which  any  amount  of  poetic  exaggera- 


48  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  52. 

tion  of  incident  fuils  to  convey  a  fnll  impression.  The  increase 
of  distance  and  tlie  final  disappearance  of  the  stranger  beliind 
the  horizon  is  watched  with  the  same  interest,  and  some  occasional 
damage  to  the  eyesight.  This  breaking  in  on  the  monotony  has 
a  singularly  beneficial  influence  in  promoting  cheerful  conversa- 
tion, cheerful  thoughts  of  home,  and  confidence  in  the  future.  It 
is  full  of  cheerful  and  healthful  influences. 

(52.)  Nodalr/ia. — The  confusion  of  moral  and  social  relations, 
as  just  described,  does  not,  of  itself,  cause  any  specific  disease, 
but  greatly  complicates  various  diseases;  and  we  may,  hence, 
have  occasion  to  allude  to  it  again.  We  here  design  to  treat  only 
of  home-sickness,  nostalgia,  a  disease  caused  by  this  kind  of  in- 
fluence, though  by  no  means  peculiar  to  the  ocean.  This  dis- 
tressing disease  has  its  origin  in  affection  for  the  mere  locality  of 
our  childhood.  It  has  been  considered  peculiar  to  the  Swiss,  and 
a  celebrated  national  air  has  been  found  to  awaken  such  mournful 
recollections  in  the  young  Swiss  soldier  or  sailor,  as  to  cause  this 
pitiable  disease.  The  playing  of  this  tune  has  hence  been  pro- 
hibited, even  under  penalty  of  death.  But  there  are  abundant 
instances  of  nostalgia  in  all  countries,  so  that  it  has  its  origin  in 
the  very  constitution  of  human  nature.  There  is  no  country  in 
the  world  so  wild  or  so  savage  as  not  to  interest  thus  the  affec- 
tions of  the  natives. 

"  Dear  is  tlie  shed  to  which  his  soul  conforms, 
And  dear  the  hill  which  lifts  him  to  the  storm." 

Goldsmith. 

The  La])lander  becomes  despondent  and  enervated  and  dies,  if 
kept  from  his  snowy  mountains  and  frozen  lakes.  Our  Ameri- 
can Indians,  after  becoming  accustomed  to  the  comforts  and  con- 
veniences of  civilized  life,  sigh  for  their  native  w41ds,  and  eventu- 
ally escape  to  their  bark  wigwams  and  endless  deserts.  INIany 
recently  imported  slaves  in  the  West  Indies,  though  changed 
from  savage  owners  to  others  of  comparatively  gentle  deportment, 
have  become  despondent  and  committed  suicide  or  died  of  the 
sulks.  The  greatest  amount  of  suffering  from  this  disease  of 
which  we  have  any  account,  was  probably  among  the  young  con- 
scripts of  the  French  army  in  the  beginning  of  the  present  cen- 
tury. The  disease  originates  in  the  feeling  of  attachment  for 
home  which  we  all  feel,  and  we  all  deeply  sympathize  with  the 


§  54.  ]  NOSTALGIA.  '     49 

siifterei".  With  most  of  us  tlie  feeling;  of  depression  and  even 
perhaps  the  thoughts  of  home  are  occasionally  replaced  by  other 
thoughts,  studies,  or  amusements — cheerful  influences.  But  with 
some  this  thought  of  home  becomes  a  fixed  idea — the  absorbing 
thought  that  occupies  the  whole  soul  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other 
thoughts.  They  are  shy,  the  countenance  becomes  stupid,  sad, 
and  pale,  with  dark  shades  about  the  lustreless  eyes.  There  are 
jialpitations  of  the  heart,  with  constant  tendency  to  syncope — 
fainting.  The  patient  conceals,  however,  the  cause  of  his  distress, 
or  more  probably  is  not  really  aware  of  it.  There  is  frecpiently 
a  presentiment  of  death  without  any  consciousness  of  its  cause, 
and  this  presentiment  is  sometimes  realized. 

The  disease  is  easily  discovered  by  a  question  or  suggestion 
about  home.  The  rapid  pulse,  the  blushing,  and  the  fainting  tell 
it  all.  Nostalgia,  with  these  symptoms,  is  a  serious  disease,  likely 
to  end  in  death.  Examinations  after  death  have  disclosed  larsre 
quantities  of  purulent  matter  about  the  surface  of  the  brain. 
{Lavreij.) 

(54.)  The  prevention  of  this  disease  and  the  cure  of  the  milder 
cases  is  accomplished  by  the  application  of  all  available  cheerful 
influences,  pleasing  occupation  in  accordance  with  the  taste  of  the 
individual,  visits  to  the  shore,  plays,  music,  and  the  whole  cata- 
logue of  amusements.  If  we  can  gently  withdraw  the  sufferer 
from  his  isolation  and  interest  him  in  some  object,  either  amuse- 
ment or  employment,  for  an  hour  or  two  each  day,  he  is  already 
nearly  cured.  Harshness  and  rough  language  only  aggravate  the 
evil.  Among  the  slave-dealers  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  where  the 
ravages  of  this  disease  were  enormous,  the  remedy  in  vogue  was 
music  and  dancing,  in  which  all,  but  more  particularly  the  quiet 
ones,  were  forced  to  take  part  by  the  use  of  a  scourge  in  the  hands 
of  a  leader  of  ceremonies.  If  the  slaves  made  much  noise  of 
themselves,  the  dealers  were  happy,  and  had  no  fear  of  losing  their 
property  by  the  sulks. 

When  nostalgia  is  really  established  there  is  but  one  remedy, — 
the  patient  must  be  sent  home.  AMiere  delay  is  unavoidable,  we 
must  do  the  best  we  can  with  the  influences  above  indicated,  and 
we  may  use  tonics  and  such  other  remedies  as  appear  appropriate 
for  the  symptoms.  In  serious  cases  they  are  only  temporary 
means  of  mitigation. 

4 


CHAPTER   VI  I. 


CLOTHINC 


-SMALL   STORES. 


(55.)  At  length  we  are  fairly  afloat  on  the  ocean  and  have 
leisure  to  examine  the  every-dav  life,  the  dress,  the  food,  and  the 
occupation  of  the  sailor. 

The  dress  of  seamen  is  regulated  with  reference  to  convenience 
and  comfort  in  their  j^eculiar  situation  without  much  reference 
to  absurd  mutations  of  fashion.  In  the  navy  the  articles  of  cloth- 
ing and  small  stores  named  in  the  following  tables  are  usually 
kept  on  board  every  ship  in  suitable  quantities.  They  are  sup- 
plied at  a  very  moderate  cost  and  charged  against  the  pay  account 
of  each  man.  Recruits  must  be  supplied  before  coming  on  board 
with  a  complete  suit,  and  enough  additional  articles  to  enable 
them  to  make  the  changes  required  by  cleanliness. 

Clothing. 


o 
a 
1)  ^• 

S 

a> 

a 
«  a 

C 

^'13 

3 

.£  2 

a  tM 

Names  of  Articles. 

as 

O 

5| 

a-s. 

2^ 

o 

O 

—  k. 

eii 

3 

o 

£ 

J 

s  t2 
< 

^"^ 

Blue  cloth  pea  jackets, 

1 

$9  90 

19  90 

50 

$4  95 

Blue  flannel  jumpers, 

1  40 

50 

70 

Blue  cloth  round  jackets 

1 

7  04 

7  04 

50 

3  75 

Blue  cloth  trowsers,     . 

1 

3  80 

3  80 

88 

3  12 

Blue  satinet  trowsers. 

1 

2  57 

2  57 

88 

2  13 

Flannel  overshirts, 

2 

1  60 

3  20 

150 

2  40 

Flannel  undershirts, 

2 

1  28 

2  46 

133 

1  64 

Flannel  drawers,     . 

2 

1  18 

2  26 

133 

1  50 

Linen  frocks,      .     . 

2 

1  18 

2  36 

133 

1  57 

Linen  trowsers,  .     . 

2 

1  19 

2  38 

133 

1  58 

Blue  satinet,  yards. 

76 

100 

76 

Blue  flannel,  yards. 

42 

600 

2  52 

Canvas-duck,  yards, 

50 

100 

50 

Sheetinji;,  yards, .     . 

64 

133 

85 

Blue  nankeen,  yards, 

10 

67 

7 

Calf-slsin  sliocs,  .     . 

1 

1  65 

1  65 

83 

1  37 

Kijj-skin  shoes,  .     . 

1  56 

50 

78 

Yarn  socks,    .     .     . 

2 

32 

64 

167 

53 

Caps, 

1 

1  00 

1  00 

100 

1  00 

Mattresses,     .     .     . 

1 

5  15 

5  15 

100 

5  15 

Blankets,   .... 

1 

2  00 

2  00 

100 

2  00 

Black  silk  handkerchiefs. 

1 

103 

1  03 

130 

1  32 

Total,     .... 

$47  44 

$40  19 

§55.] 


CLOTHING   AND   SMALL   STORES. 


51 


Small  Stores. 


Names  of  Articles. 


Tobacco,  pounds, 

Soap,  pounds, 

Beeswax,  in  small  cakes,  pounds, 
White  thread,  pounds,  .  .  .  . 
Blue  or  black  thread,  pounds,     . 

Eibbon,  pieces, 

Tape,  pieces, 

Cotton,  spools, 

Sewing  silk,  pounds,  .  .  .  . 
Pocket  handkerchiefs,  .     ,     ,     . 

Needles,  papers, 

Thimbles, 

Scissors, 

Eazors, 

Razor  strops, 

Shaving  boxes, 

Shaving  soap,  cakes,      .     .     .     . 

Shaving  brushes, 

Scrub  brushes, 

Blacking  brushes, 

Clothes  bnishes, 

Eagle  buttons,  large,  dozen,  ,  . 
Eagle  buttons,  small,  dozen,  .  . 
Eagle  buttons,  medium,  dozen,  . 
Pearl  buttons,  dozen,     .... 

Fine  comb, 

Coarse  comb, 

Blacking,  boxes, 

Grass,  hands, 

Tobacco,  pounds, 

Jack-knives, 

Mustard,  bottles, 

Pepper,  bottles, 

Total, 


=53 


2400 

2520 

8 

13 

13 

100 

80 

40 

1 

96 

27 

48 

32 

8 

8 

8 

33 

8 

32 

24 

8 

10 

40 

10 

48 

100 

100 

20 

500 

800 

100 

216 

216 


)31 

6 

64 

96 

96 

67 

3 

5 

13 

2 

1 

19 

22 

13 

13 

3 

13 

19 

20 

16 

30 

17 

30 

2 

16 

22 

4 

3 

31 

25 

13 

10 


$7  50 

1  51 

6 

12 

12 

67 

3 

3 

13 

1 
1 

7 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

7 

5 

1 

3 

7 

3 

1 

16 

22 

1 

15 

2  48 

25 

28 

24 


$14  40 


52 


NAVAL    HYGIENE. 


[§57. 


(5G.)  This  supply  of  clothing  enables  the  sailor  to  dress  com- 
fortably, "with  a  little  occasional  dandyism.  The  blue  cloth  round 
jacket  is  only  used  in  dressing  up  for  exhibition  on  shore.  The 
flannel  undershirt  is  essential  to  comfort  and  health.  It  is  merely 
a  plain  garment  without  collar  or  sleeves,  Avorn  under  the  linen 
frock  or  flannel  overshirt,  according  to  the  weather.  It  is  really 
important  that  this,  or  something  equivalent,  be  constantly  on 
liand  to  meet  the  sudden  changes  of  weather. 

In  very  warm  weather,  where  even  this  amount  of  flannel  is 
sometimes  excessive,  great  benefit  results  from  the  use  of  a  flan- 
nel belt.  This  is  a  strip  of  fine  flannel  worn  under  the  clothes, 
about  four  inches  wide  and  forty  inches  long,  with  two  or  three 
buttons  at  one  end,  shortened  a  little  at  the  upper  side  by  two  or 
three  tucks  to  make  it  fit  the  better. 


Fig.  5. 


llauucl  Bandage. 


The  idea  of  this  belt  appears  to  have  come  from  India.  Per- 
haps some  sufferers  from  dysentery  at  Calcutta  noticed  that  the 
natives  generally  wear  a  sash — the  cummerbund — and  thus  es- 
cape the  dysentery  that  destroys  the  foreigners  by  scores  and  hun- 
dreds. At  any  rate,  we  are  fully  convinced  of  the  great  value 
of  this  article  in  the  prevention  and  cure  of  the  dysentery  of 
warm  climates;  and  we  think  there  is  no  exaggeration  in  the 
statement  that  it  has  saved  many  thousands  of  lives.  It  appears 
to  act  by  affording  a  gentle  support  to  the  walls  of  the  abdomen 
at  a  time  when  they  need  such  support  on  accomit  of  the  ex- 
hausting eflects  of  climate,  and  by  keeping  up  a  zone  of  perspira- 
tion around  the  body  through  all  the  variations  of  temperature, 
and  thus  preventing  the  evils  of  suppressed  perspiration.  ["  I 
have  known  this  article,  AVorn  in  temperate  clinrates,  to  relieve 
effectually  a  dysentery  contracted  in  the  tropics."    (T.)] 

(57.)  If  so  dispose!  we  may  possibly  find  some  fault  with  the 


§  59.  ]  CLOTHING.  53 

sailor's  dress.  We  occasionally  notice  some  little  embroidery  in 
red,  yclloM',  or  brown  silk,  a  childish  taste  for  finery,  not  ])erhaps 
qnite  in  keeping  with  coarse,  sunburnt  features.  What  a  pro- 
digious improvement  there  will  be  when  no  worse  fault  than  this 
can  be  found  in  the  fisliions  of  dress  elsewhere !  The  hands  of 
grass  among  the  small  stores  arc  palm  leaves  for  the  fabrication  of 
hats.  These  hats  are  commonly  made  much  too  heavy  for  com- 
fort, the  object  being  to  make  them  preserve  the  precise  form 
deemed  most  elegant  by  the  nautical  milliners.  There  is  no  ne- 
cessity for  this ;  the  preservation  of  the  precise  form  of  a  hat  is 
of  no  such  importance  as  to  render  it  necessary  to  sacrifice  com- 
fort and  health  for  this  object.  There  is  so  little  comfort  in  the 
straw  hat  at  present  in  use  that  it  is  never  worn  except  on  dress 
occasions,  the  light  cloth  cap  being  universally  preferred  for 
common  use  in  all  climates.  There  was  formerly  in  use  a  black 
hat,  made  of  the  straw  one  by  covering  with  linen  and  saturating 
with  beeswax  and  black  paint.  It  weighed  about  two  pounds, 
and  was  polished  to  shine  like  varnish.  This  absurdity  is  prob- 
ably quite  obsolete,  though  a  few  specimens,  like  mummies,  may 
be  preserved  in  the  cabinets  of  the  curious. 

(58.)  The  officers  of  a  ship  are  generally  able  to  dress  them- 
selves comfortably,  with  few  restrictions  other  than  those  imposed 
by  the  conventional  usages  of  society ;  the  regulations  scarcely 
interferiug,  except  in  matters  of  color  and  lace.  The  undress 
cap  is  very  convenient  covering  for  the  head,  except  in  warm 
weather,  when  the  straw  hat  may  be  substituted. 

(59.)  The  small  stores  are  principally  such  small  articles  as  are 
required  in  repairing  the  clothes  and  keeping  them  in  good  order. 
This  repairing  is  useful  not  only  as  a  matter  of  economy,  but  the 
employment  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  moral  and  social  in- 
fluences, apparently  of  small  account,  but  which  in  the  aggregate 
make  existence  at  sea  tolerable.  We  should  never  object  to  see  a 
sailor's  working  clothes  patched  to  any  extent,  but  no  raggedness 
or  other  want  of  neatness  should  be  permitted.  There  is  gener- 
ally one  afternoon  of  the  week  allowed  for  mending  clothes; 
and  probably  the  happiest  moment  of  an  old  sailor's  life  is  when 
he  succeeds  in  threading  a  needle  to  sew  the  patch  on  his  trowsers ; 
having  spent  about  half  an  hour  in  selecting  a  proper  patch,  ar- 
ranging things  around  him,  and  adjusting  his  spectacles.    It  must 


64  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  60. 

carry  him  back  in  memory  to  the  innocent  days  of  childhood, 
when  he  probably  contemplated  the  featui'es  of  his  grandmother 
similarly  occupied.  The  sailor  should  never  be  deprived  of  his 
mending  day  without  a  very  good  and  very  urgent  reason. 

(60.)  But  the  leading  article  of  small  stores  is  tobacco — that 
solace  of  wretchedness,  that  exalter  of  happiness,  that  stultify- 
ino-  luxury  of  indolence !  It  is  even  introduced  twice  into  the 
allowance  table  for  fear  it  might  be  forgotten — "  don't  forget  pig- 
tail." If  there  is  any  condition  in  life  in  which  the  use  of  tobacco 
should  not  be  discouraged,  it  is  certainly  that  of  the  sailor,  whose 
life  is  nothing  but  labor  and  wretchedness,  mitigated  principally 
by  contrast,  and  variet)',  and  tobacco.  Whatever  of  consolation 
or  comfort  is  to  be  had  from  it  fairly  belongs  to  him. 


CHAPTER    YIII. 


FOOD THE    RATION. 


(61.)  The  food  of  the  sailor  is  much  restricted  in  variety  and 
deteriorated  in  quality  by  his  situation  at  sea.  It  must  consist 
necessarily  of  such  articles  as  can  be  preserved  for  a  long  time  in 
various  climates.  The  ration  as  regulated  by  Act  of  Congress  is 
abundant  in  quantity  and  of  excellent  quality.  The  laws  have 
been  changed  from  time  to  time  so  as  to  conform  to  improving 
intelligence.  Experimental  improvements  not  greatly  increasing 
the  cost  and  not  objected  to  by  the  men  are  constantly  being  in- 
troduced. The  weekly  allowance  is  exhibited  in  the  following 
table  arranged  to  correspond  with  the  usual  issue  at  sea : 


Exhibit  of  Navy  Ration  for 

Each  Day  of 

the 

Week 

>. 

u. 

Commutation 

Articles. 

a 

a 

o 

1 

1 

a 

1 

3 

(X4 

Saturday. 

Weekly  " 
quantit; 

price. 

Rate 
per  lb. 

Price. 

Biscuit,    ....     ounces, 

14 

14 

14 

14 

14 

14 

14    98 

$0  04 

$0  24J 

Beef,   .... 

pounds, 

1 

1 

2 

8 

16 

Pork,.     .     .     . 

pounds, 

1 

1 

1 

3 

10 

30 

Preserved  meat. 

pounds. 

4 

f 

n 

20 

30 

Flour,      .     .     . 

pounds. 

1 

^ 

1 

5 

5 

Eice,  .... 

pounds. 

I 

J 

6 

3 

Dried  fruit, 

ounces. 

2 

2 

4 

12 

3 

Pickles,   .     .     . 

ounces, 

4 

4 

8 

8 

4 

Sugar,      .     .     . 

ounces, 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

14 

16 

14 

Tea,  or,    .     .     . 

ounces. 

1 

4 

1 

4 

1 

4 

1 

4 

1 

4 

i 

l- 

n 

90 

lOJ 

Coffee,  or,     .     . 

ounces. 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

7 

24 

Cocoa,      .     .     . 

.     ounces, 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

7 

24 

Butter,     .     .     . 

ounces. 

2 

2 

4 

30 

7i- 

Desiccated  potato,     ounces, 

2 

2 

20 

21 

Desiccated  vegetab's,  ounces. 

1 

28 

If 

Beans,      ....     pints, 

1 
2 

1 
1 

J 

U 

36 

61 

Molasses,      ...  -  pints. 

i 

i 

48 

3 

Vinegar, ....     pints. 

i 

i 

20 

If 

Average  (25),  twenty-five  cents  per  day. 

56  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  63. 

(62.)  This  table  allows  important  variation.  For  instance, 
the  article  dried  fruit  is  usually  raisins;  on  other  stations  it  is 
drietl  apples,  and  occasionally  prunes,  dates,  and  figs  are  issued. 
Tea,  coffee,  and  chocolate  are  supplied,  sometimes  the  one,  some- 
times another,  according  to  convenience,  but  not  generally  at  the 
option  of  the  men.  The  amount  of  the  ration  is  so  abundant  that 
messes  of  fifteen  men  commonly  di'ow  but  twelve  or  thirteen  ra- 
tions. The  value  of  the  undrawn  portion  is  received  in  money 
at  the  end  of  the  month,  and  forms  a  small  mess  fund,  which 
su]ipli(^  mustard,  pepper,  and  other  condiments,  besides  fruit  and 
fresh  vegetables  in  port. 

(63.)  With  our  present  knowledge  of  the  subject  we  are  not 
able  to  suggest  much  improvement  in  the  ration.  But  without 
new  legislation  it  would  not  seem  difficult  for  the  proper  bureaus, 
with  the  concurrence  of  the  officers  of  the  nayj,  to  introduce  very 
great  improvement  in  the  issue  and  manner  of  preparing  some  of 
the  articles.  Fourteen  ounces  of  hard  biscuit  is  a  very  poor  sub- 
stitute for  bread.  It  is  so  hard  that  the  teeth  are  soon  worn  out 
in  chewing  it,  and  the  older  seamen  can  only  manage  it  by 
soaking  it  in  their  tea  or  water.  It  is  nearly  impossible  to  pre- 
serve it  in  tropical  climates  free  from  insects  and  mouldiness. 
The  bread  rooms  are  lined  w^ith  tin  and  kept  scrupulously  clean 
and  dry,  but  large  quantities  of  biscuit  are  necessarily  condemned 
and  thrown  overboard,  spoiled.  This  might  perhaps  be  obviated 
in  a  degree  by  having  most  of  the  biscuit  j)ut  up  in  air-tight  tin 
packages.  But  the  law  alloM^s  the  substitution  of  soft  bread  when 
convenient  for  the  hard  biscuit.  This  substitution  is  commonly 
made  Avhen  the  ship  is  in  port,  so  that  fresh  bread  can  be  pur- 
chased. But  as  it  will  conduce  greatly  to  health,  and  probably 
to  economy  in  other  respects,  we  hope  the  time  is  not  distant  when 
it  will  be  found  convenient  to  bake  on  board  at  sea,  and  issue  to 
each  man  a  loaf  of  fresh  bread  nearly  every  morning.  There  is 
no  real  difficulty  on  board  the  larger  ships  in  having  a  good  baker 
and  a  good  oven  for  the  purpose.  In  sailing  ships,  and  perhaps 
steamers,  the  oven  for  this  purpose  should  be  associated  with  a 
distilling  apparatus  of  sufficient  ca])acity  to  supply  every  man  on 
board  with  an  abundance  of  drinkin":-water.  A  number  of  ob- 
jections,  which  are  still  occasionally  urged  against  these  proposed 
innovations,  Iiave  been  answered  again  and  again  by  those  who 


§  63.  ]  THE    RATION.  57 

have  studied  the  subject  during  the  past  half  century.  First,  it 
is  objected  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  carry  the  requisite  amount 
of  fuel.  This  is  answered  by  the  fact  that  one  pound  of  fuel, 
economically  used,  is  more  thau  sufficient  to  evaporate  a  gallon  of 
Abater,  and  probably  a  pound  of  fuel  can  be  as  easily  carried  as 
eight  pounds  of  water.  Secondl}^,  there  is  supposed  to  be  some 
difficulty  in  carrying  so  much  flour.  But  the  barrel  which  holds 
nearly  two  hundred  pounds  of  flour  can  be  made  to  hold  but  one 
hundred  pounds  of  bread,  and  it  certainly  takes  no  more  space  to 
carry  one  barrel  of  flour  than  two  barrels  of  biscuit.  Thirdly, 
it  is  objected  that  no  place  can  be  found  on  board  for  the  oven ; 
it  would  be  in  the  way.  There  is  something  in  this  objection  ; 
but  in  small  vessels  the  oven  and  distilling  apparatus  may  be  as- 
sociated with  the  cooking  galley,  a  moderate  increase  of  size  and 
a  little  mechanical  ingenuity  being  sufficient  to  accomplish  the 
object.  I  inspected  a  contrivance  of  this  kind  in  1846,  drank 
some  of  the  water,  and  found  it  very  good.  The  navy  moves 
slow,  very  slow  in  some  directions.  Even  if  it  be  desirable  to  sep- 
arate the  oven  from  the  distilling  apparatus  and  the  cooking  gal- 
ley in  larger  vessels,  the  difficulty  we  conceive  to  be  by  no  means 
insurmountable,  for  we  have  seen  a  place  found  for  a  commodore's 
galley — a  matter  of  some  importance,  certainly,  as  it  saves  vexa- 
tion in  settling  quarrels  l)etween  the  cooks,  but  we  think  it  quite 
as  important  to  supply  the  ship's  company  with  wholesome  and 
palatable  bread.  Another  objection  is,  that  the  sailor  hates  inno- 
vations and  innovators  of  all  sorts,  and  if  the  hard  biscuit  should 
be  altogether  rej)laced  by  soft  bread,  he  would  suspect  it  to  be 
some  new  and  cunning  trick  to  cheat  him  out  of  his  rights,  and 
the  grumbling  complaints  would  be  altogether  intolerable.  This 
may  be  true,  and  probably  on  other  accounts  a  sudden  change  of 
this  kind  is  not  desirable.  The  change  should  be  brought  about 
gradually.  By  way  of  experiment,  an  oven  of  sufficient  capacity 
to  bake  a  hundred  pounds  of  bread  each  day  might  be  placed  on 
board  a  ship  with  four  or  five  hundred  men,  so  as  to  supply  a  loaf 
of  fresh  bread  once  or  twice  a  week  to  each  man  preferring  it. 
Each  man  will  be  ready  for  his  fresh  bread  as  often  as  he  can  get 
it  under  this  arrangement.  The  ovens  can  afterwards  be  grad- 
ually enlarged  and  adapted  to  every  description  of  vessels,  and 
thus  the  desired  chano-e  will  be  made  without  the  confusion  and 


68  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  67. 

trouble  which  usually  attend  the  sudden  introduction  of  radical 
reforms. 

(64.)  Beef  that  has  been  long  salted  becomes  so  hard  and  tough 
that  the  teeth  and  other  digestive  apparatus  can  hardly  convert  it 
into  nutriment.  On  this  account,  freshly  packed  beef  is  very 
much  better  than  that  which  has  been  packed  two  or  three  years. 
Salt  pork  is  nuich  better  preserved,  probably,  because  of  the 
greater  proportion  of  fat  and  its  more  thorough  blending  with  the 
muscular  tissue.  This  may  prevent  its  so  thorough  saturation 
with  salt,  and  consequent  hardening.  Both  deteriorate  by  keep- 
ing, and  so  far  as  possible,  it  is  best  that  meat  should  be  used 
before  it  has  been  too  long  salted. 

(65.)  Flour  is  used  in  comparatively  small  quantities,  princi- 
pally for  plum  puddings,  but  we  expect  to  see  it  used  in  much 
larger  quantities,  so  as  to  supersede  the  necessity  for  so  much  hard 
biscuit. 

It  is  not  always  so  well  prepared  and  packed  as  it  should  be. 
To  keep  well  in  all  climates  it  should  be  made  of  wheat  at  least 
one  year  old,  or  thoroughly  kiln  dried,  and  packed  in  tight  casks, 
with  four  iron  hoops  in  addition  to  the  connnon  wooden  ones. 
ISIuch  flour  for  want  of  this  cure  is  spoiled  and  thrown  over- 
board .  Flour,  as  commonly  prepared  for  the  market  in  temper- 
ate climates,  of  new  Avheat  and  packed  in  loose  casks,  is  quite 
worthless  when  transported  to  the  tropics. 

{()Q.)  Rice  keeps  well  in  all  climates  when  properly  packed. 
Sailors  formerly  had  a  great  prejudice  against  it,  and  fed  most  of 
their  small  allowance  to  the  fishes.  They  said  it  contained  no 
nourishment,  had  no  more  taste  or  substance  than  sawdust,  and 
caused  blindness.  These  nonsensical  notions  are  giving  way,  and 
the  small  quantity  of  rice  now  allowed  is  properly  used.  Various 
small  luxuries,  by  way  of  experiment,  were  occasionally  offered 
as  a  substitute  for  the  rice,  till  the  men  have  come  to  think  better 
of  it.  Most  of  them  arc  now  unwilling  to  do  without  the  rice ; 
and  they  are  disposed  to  keep  the  substitutes,  llice  is  probably 
the  most  useful  of  the  smaller  articles  of  the  ration. 

(67.)  Tlie  raisins  or  other  dried  fruit  are  of  great  advantage. 
On  the  Mediterranean  and  some  other  distant  stations  raisins  are 
commonly  supplied,  being  more  convenient  and  more  easily  jire- 
served  than  other  dried  fruits.     They  are  connnonly  cooked  \\  ith 


§  69.  ]  THE   RATIOX.  59 

the  small  quantity  of  flour  issued  to  make  plum  puddino-,  a  mass 
of  not  very  good-looking  material  dotted  with  fruit.  It  is  com- 
monly covered  with  molasses,  and  custom  has  made  it  attractive. 
It  certainly  possesses  important  good  qualities  not  found  in  any 
other  article  of  sea  diet.  On  the  home  station,  and  occasionally 
elsewhere,  dried  apples  are  issued  instead  of  raisins.  They  are 
made  into  pies  and  dumplings  with  flour,  and  seasoned  with  mo- 
lasses, so  that  they  answer  about  the  same  purpose  as  the  raisins ; 
some  of  the  men  even  prefer  them.  They  are  not  generally  so 
well  liked  as  the  raisins  and  are  more  difficult  of  preservation. 
Prunes,  pears,  aud  peaches  are  occasionally  substituted,  the  regu- 
lations wisely  permitting  such  substitution  when  convenient.  We 
confess  to  a  very  strong  partialit^^,  wdiich  may  be  only  a  strong 
prejudice,  in  favor  of  dried  fruits  as  a  part  of  the  seaman's  ration. 
It  seems  to  us  that  various  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  even  flesh, 
lose  less  of  the  peculiar  properties  which  belong  to  each  of  them  as 
fresh  food  by  simple  desiccation  than  by  any  other  process  of  pres- 
ervation yet  imagined,  not  even  excepting  the  use  of  air-tight  cans. 

{(iS.)  The  pickles  are  various  tender  vegetables  and  fruits 
simply  cured  in  vinegar,  or  with  salt  and  vinegar ;  but  usually 
they  are  half-grown  cucumbers  prepared  according  to  the  do- 
mestic process,  with  occasional  variation  of  the  spices  for  the  sake 
of  variety-  of  flavor.  They  were  introduced  with  a  view  to  the 
continuous  use  of  a  small  quantity  of  varied  vegetable  material, 
as  little  changed  as  possible  from  the  fresh  state,  for  the  purpose 
of  affording  protection  against  scorbutus — ^sea  scurvy.  They 
form  a  pleasant  condiment  to  the  substantial  meal,  and  are  prob- 
ably quite  as  useful  as  the  preserved  lime-juice  so  much  lauded  for 
the  same  purpose.     They  are  more  pleasant  and  more  convenient. 

(69.)  Cranberries,  which  were  formerly  indicated  as  the  sub- 
stitute for  pickles,  I  have  never  seen  issued  as  a  j)art  of  the  ration. 
This  elegant  little  fruit,  though  highly  appreciated  and  used  in 
many  ways,  has  not  yet  received  among  us  anything  like  the  at- 
tention to  which  it  is  entitled,  or  found  half  the  applications  to 
which  it  is  destined.  A  few  years  ago  it  was  an  unimportant 
wild  fruit,  growing  on  land  despised  because  it  would  produce 
nothing  else.  But  the  fruit  picked  from  this  wasted  land  was 
sold  at  a  good  price  per  quart.  The  price  increased  with  the 
comparative  scarcity  of  the  fruit,  till  cranberry  swamps  came  to 


60  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  71. 

be  valuable  jiroperty ;  and  the  growth  of  the  fruit  has  been  en- 
couraged on  eontiguous  land  till  the  cultivation  of  cranberries  has 
become  a  regular  branch  of  agriculture.  In  cool  weather,  this 
fruit  is  easily  kept  perfectly  fresh  for  several  months  by  merely 
keeping  it  immersed  in  clear  water.  We  are  not  aware  of  any 
real  attempt  to  preserve  it  for  sailors'  use  on  long  voyages.     The 

Fig.  6. 


Cranberries. 


constantly  increasing  demand  for  it  keeps  up  the  price,  so  that  it 
is  only  an  article  of  occasional  luxury,  except  among  the  wealthy, 
and  so  long  as  this  continues  to  be  the  case  it  cannot  be  exten- 
sively used  in  the  ration  of  seamen.  For  occasional  use  on  long 
voyages,  it  might  be  slightly  cooked  with  a  little  sugar  in  small 
air-tit^ht  tin  cans.  If  extensive  cultivation  should  ever  make 
the  fruit  sufficiently  abundant  and  cheap,  it  w^ould  probably  be 
worth  more  dried  than  all  the  rest  of  our  dried  fruits  put  together. 
At  present  the  cranberry  crop  is  probably  worth  as  much  as  any 
fruit  crop  in  the  United  States,  except  only  apples  and  peaches. 
(70.)  Tea,  coffee,  and  chocolate  form  by  their  aromatic  infu- 
sions delicious  beverages  of  great  advantage  to  health  and  com- 
fort. The  sugar  is  used  mainly  to  soften  the  flavor  of  the  tea 
and  coffee,  which  without  such  addition  are  too  pungent  or  bitter 
for  our  palates ;  but  the  brow^n  sugar  commonly  issued  doubt- 
lessly contains  in  its  coloring  matter  substances  of  much  import- 
ance to  nutrition.  Refined  sugar,  though  more  pleasant  generally 
to  the  taste,  is  on  this  account  probably  much  less  advantageous 
as  an  article  of  diet  in  the  absence  of  fresh  food. 

(71.)  Tea  and  coffee  are  found,  by  appropriate  chemical  treat- 
ment, to  contain  a  curious  alkaloid,  which  bears  a  relation  to  the 
plant  from  which  derived,  similar  to  that  of  quinine  to  cinchona, 


§  72,  ]  COFFEE.  61 

or  morphine  to  opium.  When  procured  from  tea  it  is  called 
theine  ;  when  from  coffee,  caffeine ;  but  it  is  now  generally  agreed 
to  consider  these  two  preparations  as  identical,  no  sort  of  differ- 
ence in  properties  being  observable.  Several  other  plants,  though 
of  very  different  botanical  characters,  Ilex paraguayensis,  PonUnia 
sorbilis,  etc.,  whose  infusions  have  come  to  be  extensively  used 
as  beverages,  are  found  to  contain  this  same  theine,  which  is 
hence  supposed  to  possess  the  insinuating  qualities  which  have 
brought  most  of  them  into  use.  Chocolate,  too,  has  its  thea- 
bromine,  which  is  very  like,  if  not  identical  with,  theine. 

Tea  is  usually  prepared  by  simple  infusion  in  boiling  w^ater, 
and  is  used  almost  immediately.  The  aroma  is  so  delicate  that  it 
is  quickly  lost  by  standing  or  boiling,  and  the  infusion  is  then 
bitter  and  it  is  thought  to  be  spoiled.  The  fresh  infusion  with 
its  aroma  is  certainly  the  most  pleasant,  and  the  Chinese  are  in 
the  habit  of  adding  fragrant  flowers  to  some  varieties  of  tea  in 
order  to  increase  and  vary  the  aroma.  But  this  fragrance  is  not 
the  only  or  probably  the  most  important  prop- 
erty of  the  tea,  and  hence  the  tea  is  probably 
at  least  half  wasted  in  our  common  j^rocess. 
The  Chinese  and  the  Japanese  use  tea  much 
more  economically.  After  the  first  fragrant  in- 
fusion, which  they  fully  appreciate,  they  add  an 
equal  quantity  of  boiling  water  for  a  second  in- 
fusion, which  is  considered  nearly  equal  to  the 
first.  They  do  not  always  stop  at  the  second  in- 
fusion, but  have  been  seen  every  time  a  cup 
of  tea  was  poured  out  to  add  a  cup  of  boiling 
water,  till  evervthing  soluble  about  the  leaves       ^      ,    .  , 

'  ..  o  Teapot  with  strainer. 

must  have  been  removed;  the  last  drawing 
being  nearly  tasteless  and  colorless.  We  are  able  to  state  that 
even  this  last  is  a  refreshing  drink  under  some  circumstances. 
The  teapot  should  always  be  provided  with  a  strainer  in  the  upper 
part,  as  in  the  pharmaceutist's  infusion  cup.  This  arrangement, 
besides  preventing  the  leaves  from  entering  the  spout,  very  much 
promotes  the  rapid  and  perfect  drawing  of  the  tea. 

(72.)  Coffee,  though  probably  no  better  than  tea  hygienically,  or 
as  an  article  of  ordinary  diet,  is  certainly  much  more  highly  esteemed 
by  the  portion  of  mankind  vrith  whom  we  more  particularly  con- 


62  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  73. 

cern  ourselves.  This  high  appreciation  of  coffee  is  probably  due 
to  its  more  decided  and  more  characteristic  flavor,  which  is  not  so 
easily  destroyed  or  lost  as  that  of  tea.  But  this  preference  actu- 
ally existing  must  be  taken  into  the  account  in  adapting  diet  to  the 
wants  of  the  individual.  The  late  Prof.  Chapman,  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  has  been  heard  to  express  himself  after 
this  fashion  :  "  The  Yankee  likes  pork  and  molasses ;  the  Vir- 
ginian is  fond  of  bacon  and  turnip  tops,  and  the  Pennsylvanian 
likes  sourcrout  and  goose ;  and  these  are  good  and  wholesome 
food  for  those  who  like  them,  and  greatly  appreciated  by  con- 
valescents sometimes,  though  the  very  thought  of  them  be  really 
nauseating  to  nine-tenths  of  mankind."  Another  ounce  of  coffee 
has  been  added  to  the  ration.  May  23d,  1872,  "An  additional 
ration  of  coffee  and  sugar,  to  be  provided  at  his  first  turning  out." 
Coffee  is  the  dried  seed  from  the  berry  of  a  small  tree  which  grows 
abundantly  everywhere  in  the  tropics,  having  probably  been  intro- 
duced into  most  of  its  present  localities  from  Arabia.  The  seeds 
are  parched  and  crushed  so  as  to  be  more  readily  acted  on  by  boil- 
ing water.  The  aroma  of  coffee  is  not  so  easily  dissipated  as  that 
of  tea,  and  it  requires  a  more  protracted  application  of  hot  water  to 
extract  the  virtues  of  the  seed.  Coffee  is,  therefore,  prepared  by 
a  short  boiling  instead  of  simple  infusion.  The  roasting  of  the 
coffee  seems  necessary  to  develop  the  peculiar  flavor  which  we 
require,  and  which  is  perhaps  necessary  to  its  M'holesomeness ; 
but  this  process  is  often  carried  too  far  by  our  cooks,  who  appro- 
priately enough  call  the  process  "  burning  "  the  coffee.  It  should 
be  rapidly  roasted  over  a  good  fire,  and  constantly  stirred,  and 
the  operation  should  be  continued  till  it  attains  a  chestnut-brown 
€olor,  or  a  little  darker.  If  the  roasting  be  continued  much 
longer  than  this  nearly  everything  that  distinguishes  coffee  from 
other  vegetable  matter  is  decomposed,  and  there  remains  little 
but  charcoal,  creasote,  and  the  like,  which  acorns,  beans,  or  chic- 
cory  woidd  supply  just  as  well.  Coffee-grains  which  have  been 
spoiled  in  this  way  have  their  black  surfaces  slightly  tinged  with 
iridescent  purple.  If  it  be  desired  to  prepare  a  substitute  for 
coffee,  of  Ijcans  or  acorns,  it  may  be  well  to  continue  the  roasting 
to  nearly  this  point,  and  the  decoction  will  have  very  nearly  the 
■flavor  of  tlie  best  Mocha  prepared  in  the  same  way. 

(73.)   Chocolate,  though  very  similar  to  coffee  and  tea  in  nutri- 


§  75.  ]  BEANS.  63 

live  properties,  is  very  inferior  in  fragrance,  is  full  of  fatty  and 
starchy  matters,  and  is  not  much  estccnied.  It  seems  necessary 
to  mix  it  with  spices  in  order  to  give  it  sufficient  flavor  to  render 
it  digestible  among  men  who  think  so  little  of  it  as  our  seamen 
generally  do.  It  is  very  liable  to  adulteration,  and  is  sometimes 
made  up  of  spices,  starch,  suet,  and  coloring  matter.  These 
frauds  can  only  be  detected  by  the  microscope  and  the  flavor ; 
and  as  the  flavor  depends  mainly  on  the  spices  properly  intro- 
duced, there  is  much  annoyance  in  purchasing  it,  except  in  the 
entire  seeds.  On  the  whole,  there  is  so  much  annoyance  and  so 
little  advantage  from  the  use  of  this  article  that  it  mig-ht  with- 
out  harm  be  omitted  from  the  ration  altogether. 

(74.)  Butter  is  such  a  common  article  of  diet  that  it  is  veiy 
disagreeable  to  attempt  to  do  without  it  at  sea.  Its  preservation 
is  very  difficult  in  tropical  climates,  and  the  navy  is  very  for- 
tunate in  having  it  packed  in  such  a  way  that  it  keeps  with  com- 
J5aratively  little  deterioration  or  loss.  It  is  valuable  in  helping 
to  keep  up  the  variety  of  customary  articles  of  diet  which  habits 
and  constitution  seem  to  make  necessary.  It  is  probably  of  great 
importance  as  an  antiscorbutic.  Its  nitrogen  compounds  being 
blended  with  fat,  probably  undergo  less  change  from  their  fresh 
condition  than  similar  material  in  most  other  kinds  of  preserved 
food.  There  is  no  sort  of  use  in  taking  it  to  sea  unless  specially 
prepared  and  packed  for  the  purpose,  as  it  would  soon  decay  and 
be  worthless. 

(75.)  The  regular  bean  of  the  navy  ration  is  the  small  white 
kidney  bean,  which  seems  to  be  universally  preferred.  Other 
varieties  and  even  horsebeans  have  been  sometimes  used  ^here 
the  white  bean  could  not  be  procured  fresh.  On  foreign  stations 
this  substitution  is  often  made  advantageously,  but  where  the 
regular  bean  is  procurable  in  good  condition,  no  other  is  com- 
parable to  it.  Beans  are,  in  every  situation,  good  food ;  but  their 
great  excellence  at  sea  is  referable  to  the  fact  that  they  are  seeds 
still  possessing  the  germinating  property.  They  hence  contain 
the  nitrogen  compounds  in  the  same  state  in  which  they  exist  in 
living  plants,  and  therefore,  probably,  they  possess  the  antiscor- 
butic virtues  which  appear  to  belong  to  all  fresh  vegetables,  even 
grass  and  weeds.  Beans  are  prepared  for  cooking  by  a  prelim- 
inary  soaking   in    fresh    water   for   nearly   twenty-four    hours. 


64  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  77. 

Daring  this  time,  if  of  good  qiiality,  they  imbibe  moisture ;  the 
process  of  germination  commences,  and  they  swell  to  about  four 
times  their  previous  bulk.  This  is  a  genuine  process  of  vege- 
table growth,  and  hence  we  understand  that  good  beans,  properly  " 
prepared,  have  valuable  pro[)L"rties,  which  are  to  be  found  only 
in  freshly  grown  vegetables.  Bciuis  which  have  been  kept  more 
than  one  season  lose  in  some  degree  the  germinating  property, 
and  though  in  good  condition  otherwise  they  should  be  rejected 
on  the  mere  fact  of  age.  The  only  real  test  of  good  betuis  is  to 
have  a  cook  who  understands  his  business  to  cook  some  of  them. 
When  the  beans  of  the  ship's  stores,  cither  by  age  or  decay,  have 
in  great  degree  lost  the  germinating  property,  any  kind  of  blue 
or  black  beans  procurable  on  the  spot,  in  fresh  condition,  may 
be  substituted  very  advantageously.  Several  varieties,  occasion- 
ally used  in  this  way,  have  gained  temporary  popularity  on  ac- 
count of  their  advantageous  comparison  with  white  beans  that 
were  old  or  spoiled. 

(76.)  Molasses,  used  principally  with  plum-pudding,  is  im- 
portant, as  it  renders  this  article  more  palatable  and  wholesome. 
It  is  probably  valuable  also,  from  containing  a  large  proportion 
of  the  nitrogen  compounds  (nitrogenous  organic  principles)  of  the 
cane,  but  little  altered  from  their  fresh  condition.  It  is,  perhaps, 
more  rich  in  this  respect  ihan  brown  sugar.  On  this  account, 
molasses  should  be  preferred  which  is  derived  most  directly  from 
the  cane.  The  best  is  made  by  merely  evaporating  the  juice  of 
the  cane  to  a  proper  consistence ;  the  next  best  is  the  drainage 
from  the  crystallization  of  brown  sugar;  the  worst  in  this  respect, 
is  sugar-house  syrup,  however  excellent  it  may  be  in  other  re- 
spects. 

(77.)  The  vinegar  of  the  rations  is  not  all  taken  by  the  men ; 
the  small  quantity  allowed  is  more  than  the  seamen  finds  use  for, 
in  seasoning  his  food,  mixing  his  mustard,  and  curing  his  pickles. 
Vinegar  prepared  from  the  juice  of  apples,  is  that  contemplated 
by  the  law;  and  inspectors  should  particularly  guard  against 
deception  in  this  article.  The  more  gross  adulterations,  with 
sulphuric  acid,  etc.,  are  easily  enougli  detected  l)y  chen\ical  re- 
agenb:.  But  much  of  the  vinegar  of  commerce  is  preptuvd  from 
other  material  than  the  juice  of  fruits, — from  whisky,  rum,  and 
molasses;  from  malt,  sugar,  and  starch;  and  however  good  iu 


§  77.  ]  VINEGAR.  65 

other  respects,  it  is  not  suituble  for  the  use  of  seamen  on  long 
voyages.  There  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  good  vinegar, 
from  fresh  fruits,  contains  much  of  the  nitrogenous  priiicij^les  of 
the  fruit  from  which  it  is  derived,  besides  acetic  acid,  and  malic, 
tartaric,  or  citric  acid.  It  is  probably  not  inferior  as  an  anti- 
scorbutic to  lime-juice,  except  when  this  latter  is  but  recently 
expressed  from  the  fresh  fruit.  The  most  reliable  test  of  good 
vinegar  is  the  aroma,  when  carefully  examined  by  an  experienced 
person. 

Preserved  meats,  desiccated  potato,  and  desiccated  mixed  vege- 
tables, have  recently  been  added  to  the  ration.  The  value  of  these 
additions  have  not  yet  been  determined.  The  quantity  of  pre- 
served meat  is  probably  too  great,  as  officers'  messes  are  not  often 
willing  to  have  a  dinner  of  such  meat  oftener  than  once  a  week. 
The  desiccated  potato  is  not  much  liked  by  the  men,  and  as  a 
substitute  for  fresh  potatoes  in  preventing  scorbutic  troubles,  we 
apprehend  it  will  prove  a  failure.  The  desiccated  mixed  vege- 
tables have  long  been  in  use  experimentally,  and  have  been  of 
great  benefit  in  long  voyages ;  but  with  steamships,  and  short 
voyages,  and  abundance  of  fresh  vegetables,  they  are  not  much 
used. 


CHAPTER   IX. 

ARRANGEMEXT  OF  MEALS — XUTRITIOX  IX  GEXERAL. 

(78.)  The  common  arrangement  of  meals,  on  shipboard,  is 
to  have  lireakfast  at  eight  o'clock,  or  immediately  after  the  morn- 
ing work ;  dinner  at  noon ;  and  supper  at  about  five,  varying  a 
little  for  occasional  convenience.  Each  meal  occupies  an  hour, 
which  is  not  interfered  with  or  disturbed,  unless  by  a  call  for 
very  urgent  duty.  This  supplies  food  at  proper  intervals,  with- 
out unnecessary  interruption.  The  only  apparent  objection  to 
the  arrangement  is  the  long  fast,  from  six  o'clock  in  the  evening 
till  eight  o'clock  next  morning — fourteen  hours.  Much  of  this 
time  is  occupied  by  sleep,  and  on  that  account  the  want  of  food  is 
not  so  severely  felt  as  otherwise  it  would  be.  But  seamen  are  re- 
quired to  keep  their  watches,  and  they  are  thus  employed  on  deck 
nearlv  half  tlie  night ;  and  they  are  commonly  called  at  daylight 
for  the  mornino;  work.  This  involves  two  or  three  hours  of 
lal3or,  whicli  is  performed  in  the  morning  before  breakfast.  Many 
men  suffer  greatly  during  this  labor  for  want  of  a  biscuit  and  a 
cup  of  coftee.  Their  suiferings  are  relieved,  in  some  degree,  by 
a  traffic  in  cofifee  with  various  cooks  at  the  galley.  But  there 
are  times,  particularly  in  the  beginning  of  the  cruise,  when  the 
men  have  no  money  to  spend  in  this  Avay  ;  and  it  sometimes 
happens  tliat  the  cooks  dishonestly  appropriate  coffee  for  this 
business.  It  would  be  much  better  to  supply  the  cup  of  cotfee 
constantly  by  regulation  than  to  continue  the  present  practice, 
which,  though  it  meets  a  real  want,  by  relieving  tlie  protracted 
fast  at  the  right  moment,  still  does  it  ineifectually,  and  leads  to 
many  annoying  abuses. 

It  may  be  objected  that  it  would  be  inconvenient  to  light  the 
galley-fires  early  enough  to  make  this  cup  of  coifee.  This  would 
sometimes  be  the  case,  but  we  see  no  more  inconvenience  in  doing 
it  regularly  than  in  permitting  it  to  be  done  for  tlie  private  sale 
of  coffee.     The  morning  work  is  sometimes  postponed  till  after  a 


§  80.  ]  NUTRITION.  67 

somewhat  earlier  breakfast,  with  great  advantage.  In  times  of 
extraordinary  labor  in  cold  weather,  as  in  approaching  our  coast 
in  a  winter  storm,  it  is  customary  to  continue  the  galley-fire  all 
night,  with  the  privilege  to  the  night  watches  of  making  coffee. 
There  is  great  comfort  and  convenience  in  this  arrangement.  We 
should  very  much  like  to  see  the  sailor  regularly  supplied  with 
his  cup  of  hot  coffee  in  the  morning  watch,  and  in  night  watches 
of  excessive  fatigue  and  labor. 

(79.)  The  subject  of  food  and  nutrition  is  of  such  paramount 
importance,  that  we  are  not  nearly  done  with  it.  The  object  of 
food  is  to  supply,  in  a  state  capable  of  assimilation,  the  material 
needed  for  the  growth  of  the  body,  and  to  supply  the  place  of 
that  which  may  be  removed  by  the  wear  and  tear  of  the  system. 
We  say  capable  of  assimilation,  because  the  proper  elements  may 
exist  in  such  shape  that  we  cannot  use  them  as  food.  For  in- 
stance, woody  fibre  has  about  the  same  ultimate  chemical  compo- 
sition as  starch  and  sugar.  The  sugar  and  starch  are  available 
food ;  but  our  teeth  and  our  stomachs  are  unable  to  digest  chips 
of  wood.  And  again,  the  atmosphere  by  which  we  are  sur- 
rounded contains  in  sufficient  abundance  nearly,  if  not  quite,  all 
the  elementary  substances  wdiich  enter  into  the  constitution  of 
living  beings ;  but  these  cannot  all  be  appropriated  directly  from 
the  atmosphere  by  the  animal  organism  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
supply  the  wants  of  the  system.  Of  about  sixty-four  elemen- 
tary substances  recognized  in  nature,  more  than  one-fourth  have 
been  obtained  from  the  human  Ijody  by  chemical  analysis.  These 
are  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  carbon,  sulphur,  phosphorus, 
silicon,  chlorine,  fluorine,  potassium,  sodium,  calcium,  magne- 
sium, iron,  manganese,  aluminium,  and  copper.  The  first  four, 
forming  the  bulk  of  the  tissues,  are  called  essential  elenients. 
The  others,  being  in  much  smaller  proportions,  and  not  entering 
universally  into  the  constitution  of  all  the  tissues,  are  called  in- 
cidental elements,  though  their  presence,  in  due  proportion,  is 
quite  essential — necessary  to  the  existence  of  the  tissues. 

(80.)  These  elements  must  all  be  supplied  by  the  atmosphere, 
and  by  our  food  and  drink.  Let  us  examine  in  succession  each 
of  these  sources  of  nutriment.  The  atmosphere  is  composed  of 
about  twenty-one  per  cent,  of  oxygen  and  seventy-nine  per  cent, 
of  nitrogen,  with  three  or  four  parts  in  ten  thousand  of  carbonic 


68  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  81. 

anhydride  (carbonic  acid  gas),  and  a  large  but  very  irregular 
proportion  of  watery  vapor.  The  other  constituents  of  the  at- 
mosphere are  in  very  minute  proportion,  and  their  presence  is 
sometimes  apparently  due  to  local  circumstances.  The  air  acts 
through  the  lungs  and  the  skin.  In  the  process  of  respiration 
it  is  warmed  to  about  37°  Centigrade  (99°  F.) ;  loses  about  five 
parts  in  one  hundred  of  its  volume  of  oxygen,  gains  about  four 
parts  of  carbonic  anhydride,  and  is  nearly  saturated  with  watery 
vapor  (Dalton).  Thus  four-fifths  of  the  oxygen  which  disappears 
goes  to  form  the  carbonic  anhydride  eliminated,  and  one-fifth 
must  enter  into  the  constitution  of  our  tissues  to  be  eliminated  by 
other  channels.  It  is  not  known  in  what  way  nitrogen  is  af- 
fected in  ordinary  respiration.  In  some  experiments  a  small 
portion  has  appeared  to  be  absorbed,  in  others  the  opposite  result 
has  been  reported.  It  would  seem  that  in  cases  of  long  fasting  a 
small  quantity  of  nitrogen  always  disappears  from  the  respired  air. 
In  the  case  of  herbivorous  animals,  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  that 
the  nitrogen  of  the  grass  and  other  food  equals  in  quantity  that 
eliminated  by  the  kidneys,  the  intestines,  and  the  skin ;  and,  hence, 
we  may  expect  to  see  it  definitely  announced  that  these  animals 
receive  large  quantities  of  nitrogen  directly  from  the  atmosphere. 
We  hence  infer  that  the  office  of  the  lungs  is  to  receive  oxygen 
for  the  use  of  the  system,  and  occasionally  nitrogen,  and  to 
eliminate  carbonic  anhydride,  water,  and  eifete  material,  useless 
and  noxious,  from  the  system.  Some  substances  incapable  of  as- 
similation when  taken  into  the  system,  promptly  find  their  way 
to  the  lungs  for  elimination,  as  alcohol,  turpentine,  etc. 

(81.)  The  skin,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  seems  not  to 
absorb  anything  from  the  atmosphere.  It  is  capable,  however, 
of  absorbing  many  substances,  medicinal  and  others,  and  much 
more  readily  when  the  cuticle  is  abraded  or  removed  by  a  blister, 
or  by  friction.  It  is  probable  that  Avater  may  be  absorbed  by 
this  surface  from  a  bath,  or  from  a  moist  atmosphere,  in  cases 
where  there  is  nuich  need  of  this  fluid,  but  it  is  difficult  to  de- 
termine the  })oint  by  any  direct  experiment.  Sailors,  when  un- 
able to  procure  drinking-water,  have  been  able  in  some  degree  to 
assuage  their  thirst  by  wetting  their  flannel  clothing  with  sea- 
water,  but  this  is  not  conclusive  evidence  of  absorption,  as  the 


§  81.  ]  NUTRITION.  69 

damp  clothing  by  checking  evaporation  must  somewhat  relieve 
thirst,  whether  there  is  absorption  or  not. 

The  exhalations  from  the  skin  are  constant  and  ai)preciable. 
The  only  substances  exhaled  in  considerable  bulk  are  water  and 
carbonic  anhydride,  which  under  ordinary  circumstances  pass  oif 
at  insensible  perspiration.     But  when  the  quantity  is  greatly  in- 
creased by  warm  w'eather  or  exercise,  and  the  evaporation  is  re- 
strained by  a  moist  atmosphere,  the  perspiration  collects  in  drops 
on  the  surfiice  of  the  body.    Still  more  important,  probably,  than 
the  carbonic  anhydride  and  the  water  are  other  materials  exhaled 
in  comparatively  small  quantities.     We  have  the  report  of  a  boy 
wdio  was  varnished  and  gilded  for  the  purpose  of  exhibition  in  a 
parade ;  the  perspiration  from  a  large  portion  of  his  body  being 
arrested,  he  promptly  gave  symptoms  of  suffocation,  and  he  died 
before  it  was  possible  to  remove  his  unfortunate  finery.     Xow, 
it  is  impossible  to  refer  this  and  similar  results  to  the  retention  of 
the  carbonic  anhydride  and  the  water  of  the  perspiration,  for  the 
elimination  of  the  carbonic  anhydride  would  impose  on  the  lungs 
onlv  two  per  cent,  additional  labor  (Reignault  and  Reiset),  and 
surelv  the  water  could  be  eliminated  by  the  kidneys.     The  case 
of  this  celebrated  boy  has  lately  been  the  subject  of  some  doubt, 
as  the  varnish  might  have  been  composed  of  poisonous  material, 
but  the  experiment  has  been  often  enough  repeated  on  horses  and 
rabbits,  and  it  kills  them — the  more  complete  the  coat  the  more 
quickly  they  die.     It  is  to  be  hoped  that  no  one  will  have  the 
foolhardiness  to  try  the  experiment  on  himself;    accident  may 
some  time  repeat  the  experiment.     The  character,  and  especially 
the  amount  of  this  additional  matter  of  perspiration,  can  only 
be  guessed  at.     Thenard,  in  the  perspiration  from  a  well-worn 
flannel  shirt,  discovered  the  following  substances:    Chloride  of 
sodium,  acetic  acid,  phosphate  of  soda,  phosphate  of  lime,  oxide 
of  iron,  and  animal  substance.     Berzelius,  in  sweat  wdiich  had 
run  from  the  forehead,  found  lactic  acid,  chloride  of  sodium,  and 
muriate  of  ammonia.     It  is  difficult  for  us  to  conceive  why  all 
these  substances  cannot  be  eliminated  by  the  lungs  and  by  the 
kidneys  and  the  other  eliminating  organs,  but  the  evidence  is 
sufficiently  conclusive  that  they  cannot.     The  offensive  character 
of  cutaneous  perspiration  is  often  very  appreciable  by  the  sense  of 
smell.     We  have  had  occasion  to  experience  this  on  visiting  the 


70  NAVAL   HYGIENE.  [  §  82. 

crowded  bertli-deck  of  a  man-of-war  wlien  it  was  necessary  to 
close  hatches  in  a  storm,  and  the  wearers  of  patent  leather  boots 
may  have  had  such  experience  without  going  so  far  from  home. 

(82.)  So  far  as  we  know,  the  atmosphere  containing  nearly, 
perhaps  quite  all  the  elements  of  our  bodies,  supplies  directly  for 
nourishment  oxygen  only.  But  it  is  one  of  the  great  avenues  by 
which  worn-out,  effete,  useless,  and  poisonous  materials  are  re- 
moved. These,  when  not  freely  diluted  and  removed  by  ven- 
tilation, are  sometimes  very  poisonous,  capable  of  exciting  dan- 
gerous disease  in  those  A\ho  inhale  them,  and  they  always  become 
poisonous  by  some  process  of  decay  if  kept  thus  concentrated  for 
any  considerable  time.  In  this  way,  by  the  decaying  exhalations 
from  the  skin  and  the  lungs,  typhus  fever  was  formerly  caused 
very  often  in  jails,  emigrant  ships,  crowded  tenements,  etc. 
Terribly  destructive  epidemics  have  originated  in  this  way. 


CHAPTER   X. 

DRINK RAIN-WATER RIVER-WATER — SPRING-WATER 

WELL-WATER POISONOUS    WATER. 

(83.)  Though  neither  air  nor  water  comes  under  the  ordinary 
designation  of  food,  they  are  quite  as  important  as  solid  food  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  body.  Human  life  can  be  continued  but 
a  minute  or  two  without  a  renewed  supply  of  air,  perhaps  a  day 
or  two  without  water,  and  a  week  or  two,  possibly  a  month,  with- 
out any  nutriment  except  air  and  water.  While  on  this  subject 
we  shall  conclude  what  we  have  to  say  of  water  as  nutritive  ma- 
terial and  hygienic  agent. 

Water,  with  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in  the  proportion  necessary 
to  form  water,  constitutes  the  bulk  of  the  human  organism.  If 
the  body  be  desiccated,  the  tissues,  except  the  bones,  fat,  and  skin, 
are  reduced  to  a  small  fraction  of  what  they  were.  This  loss  in 
size  and  weight  is  principally  due  to  the  removal  of  water,  which 
partly  existed  as  water  in  the  system,  and  partly  as  oxygen  and 
hydrogen  in  the  constitution  of  the  tissues.  The  desiccated  re- 
mains are  still  composed,  in  large  proportion,  of  oxygen  and  hy- 
drogen. Much  of  this  water,  and  of  these  elements  of  water  is 
derived  from  the  water  we  drink,  and,  hence,  it  is  scarcely  possi- 
ble to  overestimate  the  hygienic  and  therapeutic  value  of  water. 

(84.)  Besides  forming  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  whole  body 
(Blumenbach),  water  gives  its  necessary  fluidity  to  the  blood, 
without  which  it  could  not  be  distributed  to  the  tissues  and  or- 
gans. The  atmosphere,  if  deprived  of  its  water,  would  be  wholly 
unfit  for  respiration,  as  it  would  carry  off  the  vapor  from  the 
lungs  and  air-passages  so  rapidly  as  to  cause  exhaustion  and  death. 
Water  forms  a  large  proportion  of  all  the  organic  substances  used 
as  food.  The  common  potato,  for  instance,  is  about  three-fourths 
composed  of  water,  which  can  be  separated  by  mere  drying ;  and 
the  starch  particles  remaining  are  still  largely  composed  of  oxygen 
and  hydrogen  in  the  proportion  to  form  water.     Animal  matter, 


72  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  85. 

such  as  muscular  flesh  (ordinary  meat),  is  composed  of  ■water  in 
much  larger  proportion.  Digestion  in  the  stomach  cannot  be 
carried  on  without  a  due  proportion  of  water,  and  that  is  to  say 
a  very  large  proportion.  Thirst  can  Ijc  relieved  only  by  water, 
or  by  food  or  drink  composed  mainly  of  water.  Water  abounds 
in  nil  liabitable  regions  of  the  globe;  only  the  ocean  and  tlie 
desert  are  without  abundant  supplies  of  drinking-water.  This 
universal  beverage  is  placed  by  a  bountiful  Providence  nearly 
everywhere. 

(85.)  The  most  eminent  physicians  of  all  times  hayo  had  a 
high  appreciation  of  the  great  value  of  water.  Pliny  thought  it 
a  great  absurdity  for  men  to  be  at  so  much  trouble  and  expense 
to  make  a  variety  of  drinks,  when  nature  has  supplied  them  so 
abundantly  with  one  of  such  excellence  as  water.  Hoffman  says 
that  "  no  remedy  can  more  effectually  secure  health  and  prevent 
disease  than  pure  water."  "  Water  proves  agreeable  to  persons 
of  all  ages."  He  points  out  what  we  are  sure  are  facts,  that 
water-drinkers  are  more  healthy  and  longer  lived,  have  whiter 
and  sounder  teeth,  and  are  more  brisk  and  alert  than  those  who 
habitually  drink  wine  and  malt  liquors.  Haller,  the  eminent 
physiologist,  drank  nothing  but  water.  The  classical  Gregory, 
who  lived  in  an  age  and  country  where  alcoholic  compotations 
were  general,  declares  spring  and  river  water  to  be  the  most 
wholesome  drink,  and  the  most  grateful  to  those  who  arc  thirsty, 
whether  sick  or  well.  We  might  increase  to  any  extent  the  cata- 
logue of  the  praiscrs  and  drinkers  of  water  without  coming  down 
to  the  times  when  people  separated  themselves  into  parties  on  this 
subject,  and  commenced  calling  each  other  fanatics  and  sots. .  Dr. 
Miller,  of  New  York,  long  before  the  temperance  movement, 
pointed  out  the  instructive  fact  that  "  in  all  the  frequent  attemjits 
to  sustain  the  intense  cold  of  winter  in  the  Arctic  regions,  particu- 
larly in  Hudson's  Bay,  Greenland,  and  Spitzbergen,  those  crews 
who  had  been  well  supplied  with  provisions  and  liquors  have 
generally  perished,  while,  at  the  same  time,  the  greatest  number 
of  suryivors  have  been  uniformly  found  among  those  who  were 
accidentally  thrown  on  inhospitable  shores,  destitute  of  food  and 
liquors,  and  compelled  to  maintain  an  incessant  struggle  against 
the  rigors  of  the  climate  in  procuring  food,  and  obliged  to  use 


§  86.  ]  RAIN-WATER.  73 

"water  alone  for  driiikiug."     But  the  end  of  tlie  gigantic  breweries 
is  not  yet.  {Bdl) 

(86.)  There  is  much  importance  properly  attached  to  the  differ- 
ent varieties  of  water.  Ships,  on  leaving  home  ports  and  on  most 
foreign  stations,  obtain  a  supply  of  good  water,  the  quality  being 
ascertained  by  abundant  experiment  and  traditional  use.  Under 
such  circumstances  there  is  no  difficulty  in  making  the  proi)er 
selection  ;  but  this  is  not  always  the  case,  and  we  may  be  called 
upon  to  determine  the  comparative  salubrity  of  water  from  various 
sources.  Rain-iraicr  is  the  purest  water  found  in  nature.  It  is, 
indeed,  water  distilled  principally  by  evaporation  from  the  surface 
of  the  ocean  and  condensed  by  varying  clianges  of  atmospheric 
temperature.  The  small  quantity  of  iodine  which  it  contains 
may  be  evaporated  from  the  ocean,  and  in  the  act  of  precipita- 
tion it  takes  up  atmospheric  air  with  an  additional  portion  of 
oxygen,  carbonic  anhydride,  ammonium  nitrate  and  carbonate, 
undetermined  nitrogenous  matter,  and  various  impurities  from 
dust  and  other  sources  of  local  contamination.  Liebig  tells  us  : 
"  It  is  worthy  of  observation  that  the  ammonia  contained  in  rain 
and  snow  water  has  an  offensive  smell  of  perspiration  and  animal 
excrements ;  a  fact  which  leaves  no  doubt  respecting  its  origin." 
The  first  rain  of  a  shower  is  much  more  charged  with  this  nitro- 
genous matter  and  dust,  especially  after  a  protracted  period  of  dry 
weather,  and,  therefore,  it  should  be  allowed  to  run  to  waste  in 
collecting  rain-Avater  for  domestic  uses.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  the  nitrates  are  formed  by  the  discharge  of  electricity^  in 
thunderstorms.  This,  however,  can  hardly  be  the  case  exclu- 
sively, for  there  are  places,  in  Peru,  for  instance,  where  rain  and 
thunderstorms  are  unknown,  and  where  the  nitrates  are  con- 
stantly precipitating  and  incrusting  the  earth,  so  as  to  be  profitably 
extracted  by  lixiviation.  Rain-water  is  by  some  considered  the 
very  best  drinking-water.  It  certainly  answers  the  purpose  per- 
fectly well,  and  is  probably  neither  better  nor  worse  for  the  ab- 
sence of  the  earthy  salts  usually  found  in  river  and  spring  water. 
When  carefully  collected,  kept  for  a  week  or  two  in  an  iron  or 
brickwork  cistern,  till  its  organic  matters  are  decomposed  and 
cooled  to  a  proper  temperature,  there  Ls  probably  no  better  drink- 
ing-water to  be  obtained. 


74  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  87. 

Snow-7i'afcr  contains  less  oxygon  than  rain-water,  but  differs 
from  it  api)arently  in  no  other  important  particular. 

(87.)  River-ivater  contains  all  the  impurities  of  rain-water, 
Avith  the  addition  of  such  matters  as  it  may  collect  from  the 
soil ;  except  that  in  some  instances  it  may  lose  more  organic 
matters  bv  decomposition  tlum  it  receives  in  its  course.  The 
impurities  of  river-water  are  as  various  as  the  constituents  of  the 
soil  through  wliich  it  flows.  A  large  portion  of  these  are  neces- 
sary constituents  of  our  bodies,  and  we  may  actually  receive  them 
partly  from  this  source;  but  that  they  may  be  derived  from 
other  sources,  and  are  not  essential  to  the  character  of  good 
drinking-water,  is  sufficiently  proved  by  the  excellence  of  rain- 
water, which  does  not  contain  them. 

River-water  is  often  unpleasantly  nuiddy,  but  this  fault  may 
be  corrected  by  rest,  with  or  without  alum,  or  by  filtering.  Rivers 
flowing  through  flat  countries  are  apt  to  have  marshes  and  marshy 
pools  in  the  hollows  near  their  banks,  and  they  are  always  in 
some  degree  contaminated  by  the  un^^•holesorae  water  of  these 
marshes.  The  water  of  such  rivers  has  occasionally  been  found 
very  unwholesome,  causing  epidemics  of  malarial  fever  (intermit- 
tent and  remittent)  and  dysentery.  These  bad  qualities  may  be 
obviated  in  some  degree  by  boiling  and  cooling,  as  with  marsh- 
water.  Rivers  as  they  approach  the  ocean  become  brackish, 
especially  where  there  is  much  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide.  This 
seriously  injures  the  water,  but  the  fault  is  in  some  degree  cor- 
rected if  the  water  be  kept  for  some  time  in  iron  tanks  before 
using ;  and  even  throwing  a  handful  of  nails  into  a  cask  of  such 
water  greatly  improves  its  quality. 

Rivers  afford  the  only  adequate  supply  of  water  for  large  cities. 
The  Thames,  besides  serving  as  an  outlet  for  the  sewers,  formerly 
supplied  the  Avhole  city  of  London  with  drinking-water  by  the 
various  water-works  built  along  its  banks.  "  The  Thames  water 
has  a  smell  of  excrement  even  after  the  application  of  all  usual 
means  of  purification." — {Normanchj)  This  disgusting  and  un- 
healthy arrangement  is  being  gradually  corrected.  The  Schuyl- 
kill, supplying  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  passes  by  the  manufac- 
turing town  of  Manayunk,  and  is,  probably,  not  as  i)ure  as  it 
might  be,  tliough  it  contains  but  about  one-eighth  as  nuuli  or- 
ganic matter  as  the  Croton,  and  less  than  one-tenth  as  much  as 


§89.] 


SrRING-AV'ATER. 


75 


the  Thames.  Detroit,  Michigan,  lias  probably  purer  water  than 
any  other  city  in  the  world.  TJie  following  are  about  the  pro- 
portions of  mineral  and  organic  matter  per  thousand  in  some  of 
the  waters  which  supply  large  cities,  varying  much,  of  course, 
with  seasons  and  freshets. — {Bell.) 


WATERS. 

MINERAL  MATTER. 

ORGANIC  MATTER. 

Schuylkill,  .... 

Croton, 

Cochituate,  .... 

Thames, 

Seine, 

3.508  to  5.5 

4.998 

1.220 
10.925 
10.662 

.037 

.276 
.500 
.392 
traces. 

(88.)  Spring-water  varies  much  in  quality.  It  is  rain-water 
filtered  through  the  soil,  in  which  process  it  loses  a  large  portion 
of  the  organic  matters  which  it  had  received  from  the  air,  and 
it  dissolves  various  minerals  which  it  meets  in  the  earth.  Hence 
its  quality  varies  with  the  character  of  the  soil  through  which  it 
flows.  When  the  spring  comes  from  a  sloping  hill  of  primitive 
or  transition  rock,  the  water  having  lost  its  organic  matter,  and 
received  nothing  injurious,  it  aifords  probably  the  very  best 
natural  drinking-water.  But  spring-water,  according  to  the  situa- 
tion, is  liable  to  receive  every  soluble  substance  in  nature ;  and 
hence,  the  great  variety  of  saline,  sulphur,  and  chalybeate  sj^rings. 
A  spring  may  occasionally  drain  a  marsh  at  no  great  distance, 
and  be  contaminated  by  the  injurious  decaying  material  which 
belongs  to  stagnant  water. 

(89.)  Well-water,  or  pump-water,  may  be  considered  as  identi- 
cal with  spring-water.  If  the  well  be  in  a  well-drained  slope, 
with  a  basis  of  primitive  rock,  there  is  no  better  water  anywhere, 
but  in  limestone  and  marshy  districts  it  is  about  the  worst.  Wells 
are  much  more  liable  than  springs  to  dangerous  contaminations 
from  local  causes,  especially  in  and  near  cities.  The  following 
extract  from  a  newspaper  is  a  case  in  point : 

"  Poisonous  Wells. — Any  one  passing  Eichmond  Terrace, 
Clifton,  during  the  last  week  or  ten  days,  must  have  remarked 
the  long  string  of  doctors'  carriages  drawn  up  in  the  neighbor- 
hood.    The  reason  for  this  formidable  display  was  the  existence 


76  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  91. 

of  illness  in  almost  every  second  house,  the  inhal)itants  of  which 
were  afflicted  with  giistric  fever  (typhoid).  Nearly  a  whole  school 
of  young  ladies  were  lying  ill  at  the  same  time,  and  there  was 
scarcely  a  family  which  had  not  some  of  its  membei's  sick.  It 
was  not,  however,  till  one  death  had  taken  place,  and  several 
were  in  imminent  danger,  that  the  cause  of  this  extensive  illness 
was  discovered.  It  turned  out  to  be  produced  by  the  use  of  a 
spring  which  supplied  the  place,  and  whose  Avaters  had  been  im- 
perceptibly poisoned  by  a  sewer  breaking  into  it,  and  so  vitiating 
their  character  as  to  cause  gastric  fever  in  every  family  using  it. 
On  being  found  out,  of  course  the  evil  was  remedied,  but  not 
before  much  mischief  had  been  done.  The  necessity  of  a  pure 
water  supply  and  an  improved  system  of  sewerage  were  sho^vn." — 
Bristol  Times. 

(90.)  The  loater  of  inarshes  and  stagnant  pools  is  contaminated 
by  the  decaying  organic  matters  collected  in  such  places.  If  men 
should  be  constrained  by  necessity  to  use  such  water,  they  may 
get  rid  of  much  of  the  poisonous  quality  by  boiling  and  cooling 
it,  by  which  they  stop  the  decay  for  the  time,  and  drive  off  the 
poisonous  gases  held  in  solution.  The  air  is  expelled  at  the  same 
time,  so  as  to  render  the  water  unpleasantly  insipid ;  but  this  fault 
may  be  corrected  by  aeration,  or  infusing  any  pleasantly  bitter  or 
aromatic  plant,  making  tea. 

(91.)  On  foreign  stations,  it  frequently  becomes  an  important 
matter  to  select  the  best  place  for  obtaining  a  supply  of  whole- 
some water.  In  mountainous  countries  there  is,  as  a  rule,  no  diffi- 
cult}^, for  every  spring,  unless  possessing  some  evident  mineral 
quality,  affords  such  ^vater  as  we  need ;  and  if  it  flow  for  some 
distance  in  a  brook,  it  is  none  the  worse.  Before  receiving  water 
from  a  brook,  it  is  desirable  to  follow  it  up  for  some  distance  to 
its  source,  in  order  to  see  that  there  are  no  stagnant  2:>ools  or  other 
source  of  contamination  along  its  banks.  If  the  bed  of  the  brook 
is  of  pebbles  or  sand,  and  the  banks  sloping  or  al)rupt,  and  its 
course  rapid,  there  need  not  be  much  further  questioning  about 
the  good  quality  of  the  water.  In  fact,  it  may  often  be  an  ad- 
vantage to  have  the  water  flow  some  distance  in  a  brook  of  this 
kind,  as  it  affords  excellent  aeration,  by  which  the  proportion  of 
atmospheric  air  and  carbonic  anhydride  are  brought  to  the  ])roper 
average,  and  any  mineral  matter  in  excess  may  be  precipitated. 


§  91.  ]  THE   CHOICE    OF    WATER.  77 

But  wc  liavc  not  always  the  advantage  of  such  a  situation.  The 
water  of  marshy  places  is  to  be  avoided,  as  well  as  that  of  slug- 
gish little  streams  flowing  through  a  flat  country.  In  case  of 
necessity,  M^atcr  from  the  middle  of  a  large  river  should  be  taken 
in  preference,  as  from  its  longer  course  its  organic  matter  has  had 
more  time  for  decomposition,  and  for  the  poisonous  results  of 
decay  to  be  dissipated.  Low  sand  islands,  without  nuich  vegeta- 
tion, in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  ocean,  generally  furnish  an 
abundance  of  excellent  water,  especially  in  seasons  of  nuich  rain. 
The  rain  displaces  the  sea-water,  and  remains  nearer  the  surface, 
so  that  it  may  be  obtained  perfectly  good  by  digging  shallow 
wells.  Good  water  is  sometimes  obtained  from  wells  of  this  kind, 
even  so  near  the  ocean  that  the  rise  and  fall  of  water  in  them 
correspond  with  the  movements  of  the  tide.  But  with  much  rise 
and  fall  of  tide,  the  water  is  liable  to  become  brackish  by  infil- 
tration from  the  ocean.  If  this  is  merely  perceptible  to  the  taste, 
the  water  need  not  be  absolutely  rejected,  especially  if  we  have 
iron  tanks  in  which  to  preserve  it ;  for  it  quickly  loses  its  salts 
without  other  inconvenience  than  rusting  somewhat  the  tanks. 


CHAPTER   XI. 


1>URIFYIXG    AND    PRESERVING  WATEPw 


(92.)  E.IVER-AVATER  is  generally  charged  with  earthy  impuri- 
ties. These  may  be  principally  removed  by  allowing  it  to  re- 
main for  a  time  at  rest  in  a  tank  or  reservoir,  using  the  clear 
Avater  from  the  top  after  the  subsidence  of  the  insoluble  material. 
The  organic  matter  is  at  the  same  time  decomposed  and  removed 
by  the  atmosphere.  This  is  the  process  most  generally  available 
for  purification  on  a  large  scale,  and  is  greatly  accelerated  by  the 
addition  of  a  very  small  quantity  of  alum,  four  or  five  grains  to 
the  barrel,  not  enough  to  be  tasted  or  to  injure  the  water  in  any 
way. 

(93.)  A  much  more  expeditious  process,  and  more  eifective  on 
a  small  scale,  is  by  filtration.  There  are  several  ways  of  eifect- 
ing  this,  but  the  most  generally  applicable  is  to  pass  the  water 
through  alternate  layers  of  sand  and  gravel,  with  sometimes  an 
addition  of  charcoal.  Filters  of  various  sizes  thus  arranged 
may  be  obtained  almost  everywhere,  and  can  certainly  be  made 
by  any  common  mechanic  A\'ith  but  very  little  special  instruc- 
tion or  supervision.  They  are  often  a  source  of  much  comfort. 
In  the  margin  we  represent  a  sectional  plan  of  a  filter  which 

may  readily  be  made  by  a  cooper.  It 
consists  of  a  vessel.  A,  to  receive  the 
muddy  water,  with  gimlet-holes  in  the 
bottom  which  transmit  it  to  B,  the 
second  compartment,  packed  with 
gravel,  sand,  and  gravel  in  successive 
layers,  through  which  the  water  filters 
to  C,  the  third  division,  from  wliieh 
it  may  be  drawn  for  use.  The  sand, 
thus  situated,  seems  capable  of  arrest- 
ing, not  only  mechanical  impurities,  but,  in  some  degree,  even 
soluble  salts.     This  filter,  being  made  up  of  separate  pieces,  may 


Fig.  8. 


Water  Filter. 


§  95.  ]  WATER.  79 

without  trouble  be  tiikeu  apart,  cleaned,  and  re})airc!d.  It  has 
the  disadvantage  that  being  made  of  wood  the  water  may  be 
somewhat  injured  by  the  material.  If  made  of  iron  or  earthen- 
ware it  would  be  nearly  perfect.  A  very  nice  filter  is  made  of 
soft  sandstone  by  fsishioning  it  into  a  vessel  of  conical  form,  about 
two  inches  thick,  and  mounting  it  in  a  frame,  so  that  a  vessel 
placed  underneath  may  receive  the  water  as  it  drips  through.  A 
dripstone  of  this  kind  may  very  well  supply  drinking-water  for 
thirty  or  forty  persons,  and  has  the  additional  advantage,  that  it 
cools  the  water  considerably  in  dry  weather ;  but  it  has  not  suffi- 
cient capacity  to  filter  water  on  a  large  scale. 

(94.)  Boiling  and  cooling  some  varieties  of  water  may  occa- 
sionally be  advantageous.  It  ])recipitates  the  excess  of  carbonate 
of  lime,  and  some  other  impurities.  It  expels  the  gaseous  re- 
mains of  decaying  organic  matter,  and  decomposes  the  poisons 
most  likely  to  be  present  in  marsh-water.  The  water  by  this 
process  is  deprived  in  some  degree,  if  not  entirely,  of  its  poison- 
ous properties ;  but  by  the  loss  of  its  carbonic  acid  and  atmos- 
pheric air,  it  becomes  so  flat  as  to  be  quite  unpleasant  to  the  taste, 
and  barely  drinkable.  By  filtering  and  exposure  to  the  air  this 
may  be  corrected,  and  the  water  thus  treated,  cocta  et  dein  rcfrig- 
erata,  becomes  drinkable. 

(95.)  The  distillation  of  sea-water  is  a  means  of  obtaining 
good  water  on  shipboard,  which  is  likely  to  become  of  great 
importance.  In  sailing  ships,  on  long  voyages,  it  greatly  econo- 
mizes space,  as  it  requires  little  more  than  a  pound  of  coal  to 
make  a  gallon  of  pure  water,  besides  doing  the  cooking  for  the 
crew  at  the  same  time.  In  war  steamers  there  is  often  much 
steam  wasted  by  banked  fires,  etc.,  which  might  as  well  be  con- 
densed and  used.  Distilled  Avater  is  deprived  of  air  and  salts, 
and  is  hence  insipid,  and  is  rendered  further  unpleasant  by  a  dis- 
agreeable flavor,  probably  derived  from  the  decomposition  by 
heat  of  small  quantities  of  organic  matter.  These  disadvan- 
tages have  in  some  degree  been  obviated  by  churning  and  other 
devices  for  exposing  it  to  the  action  of  the  air ;  but  the  empyreu- 
matic  flavor  is  hard  to  get  rid  of  without  the  intervention  of 
considerable  time.  AVe  are  inclined  to  think  that  distilled  water 
preserved  in  iron  tanks  about  half  full,  long  enough  to  lose  its 
burnt  flavor,  perhaps  a  week,  would  likewise  be  sufficiently  aer- 


80  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  96. 

ated,  especially  Avith  the  motion  of  the  ship  at  sea.  lu  this  time 
it  would  further  approximate  to  the  characters  of  the  best  drink- 
ino--watei*s ;  it  would  receive  its  full  portion  of  iron  from  the 
tank ;  it  would  certiiinly  get  all  the  chloride  of  sodium  required 
without  any  special  care ;  half  an  ounce  of  the  carpenter's  chalk 
to  a  hundred  gallons  would  supply  as  much  carbonate  of  lime  as 
is  usually  present  in  the  best  cb'inking-water;  and  thus  we  may 
have  about  as  good  drinking-water  as  any  in  the  world.  If 
it  be  necessary  to  imitate  more  exactly  any  natural  water,  we  have 
only  to  add,  in  proper  proportions,  a  very  small  quantity  of  car- 
bonate of  potash,  magnesia,  and  ammonia,  and  a  few  drops  of 
sulphuric  acid.  The  best  waters  vary  greatly  in  the  proportion 
of  these  salts ;  they  are,  however,  ahvays  present  in  small  quan- 
tities, and  an  excess  of  any  of  them  beyond  a  grain  or  two  to 
the  gallon  is  enough  to  spoil  the  water.  The  ammonia,  repre- 
senting decaying  organic  matter,  should  be  omitted  altogether. 
Whatever  is  added  in  this  way  should  be  added  as  soon  as  possi- 
ble, in  order  to  allow  time  for  thorough  incorporation,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  natural  affinities.  The  fresh  water  condensed  to 
form  the  vacuum  of  the  steam-engine  is  so  highly  charged  with 
empyreumatic  material,  derived  from  the  oil  of  the  cylinders, 
that  it  is  quite  offensive,  and  useless  even  for  washing  clothes. 
\ye  read  somewhere  of  a  crcAV  being  cast  away  on  a  desolate 
island  without  water.  They  had,  however,  the  carpenter's  pitch- 
kettle  and  a  gun-barrel,  which  were  arranged  into  an  effective 
distilling  apparatus  of  sufficient  capacity  to  save  their  lives.  The 
call  for  water  was  probably  so  urgent  in  this  case  that  there  was 
not  much  objection  to  the  flavor. 

At  my  suggestion,  on  board  the  flag-ship  Lancaster,  in  1870, 
the  idea  of  aeration  by  a  small  pebbly  brook  was  put  in  practice. 
A  trough  about  ten  feet  long  was  arranged  with  transverse  parti- 
tions to  make  little  cascades,  and  half  filled  with  pebbles.  There 
was  no  filter  about  it,  and  no  unpleasant  flavor  could  be  found 
in  distilled  water  aerated  in  this  way.  It  was  worked  on  the 
spar-deck  to  insure  pure  air.  The  apjiaratus  was  afterwards 
changed  to  the  form  of  a  large  funnel,  as  represented  in  the 
diagram  (Fig.  9).  A  funnel  of  this  kind,  twenty  inches  square 
and  twenty-five  high,  suffices  for  five  thousand  gallons  in  twenty- 
four  hours. 

(96.)  The  general  use  of  iron  tanks  on  shipboard,  for  preserv- 


§97.] 


IRON   TANKS. 


81 


iug  and  purifying  water,  is  one  of  the  great  improvements  of 
modern  times.  The  small  amount  of  iron  dissolved  in  the  water 
does  no  harm,  but  probably 
assists  in  jirecipitating  the  or- 
ganic matter  which  the  wa- 
ter, as  received,  may  happen 
to  contain.  The  iron  being 
acted  on  by  the  salts  Avhich 
may  be  in  excess,  they  are 
decomposed,  especially  the 
sulphates  and  chlorides,  and 
brackish  water  thus  becomes 
good  and  wholesome.  When 
the  organic  matters  have  once 
decayed,  nothing  susceptible 
of  decay  can  be  derived  from 
the  iron,  and  water  thus  pre- 
served is  no  more  subject  to 
decay  or  change  than  rock 
crystal.  Occasionally,  in 
rough  weather,  some  iron  rust 
may  make  the  water  turbid  ; 
but  this  is  no  great  disadvan- 
tage, and  may  readily  be  re- 
moved by  a  filter,  or  a  pro- 
vision of  limpid  water  may 
easily  be  kept  on  hand  by 
transferring  limpid  water 
from  its  sediment  into  clean 
tanks  on  proper  occasions. 
Rain- water  collected  from 
roofs  and  kept  in  large  iron 
or  brickwork  reservoirs  is 
generally  the  best  water  obtainable  in  tropical  seaports. 

(97.)  Wooden  casks  were  formerly  in  general  use  for  keeping 
water  on  shipboard.  But  the  wood  is  constantly  decaying  and 
supplying  organic  matter  for  offensive  decomposition,  as  long  as 
the  water  remains  in  contact  with  it.  From  this  cause  the  water 
is  always  offensive,  except  during  the  first  few  hours  after  its  in- 

6 


Aerator  for  Distilled  Water. 


82  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  98. 

troduction  into  tlic  casks.  The  degree  of  oifensiveness  is  much 
varied  by  circumstances.  It  is  much  mitigated  by  leaving  the 
bung  out  of  the  cask  for  a  day  or  two  before  using,  so  as  to  per- 
mit the  escape  of  the  offensive  gases  into  the  atmosi)here.  Scraps 
of  iron,  or  a  few  nails,  thrown  into  a  cask,  have  great  influence 
in  preserving  the  water.  The  iron  seems  to  prevent  the  solution 
of  organic  matter  from  the  oaken  casks,  and,  pro])ablv  by  com- 
l)ining  with  any  sulphur  ])resent,  prevents  the  decomposition  from 
becoming  of  so  offensive  a  character.  Charring  the  interior  of 
the  casks  and  scrupulous  cleanliness  are  measures  which  have 
their  use ;  but  wooden  casks  should  never  be  used  for  preserving 
water,  except  for  a  very  short  time,  as  on  boat  excursions,  or 
'  merely  for  transferring  water  from  the  beach  to  the  ship.  Custom 
can  do  much  in  the  way  of  making  this  offensive  water  toleral)le, 
and  some  seafaring  men  have  pretended  even  to  prefer  water  a 
little  tainted  in  this  way ;  but  the  number  of  them  is  very  small, 
and  such  water  is  not  wholesome. 

(98.)  Leaden  reservoirs,  tanks,  and  pipes  were  formerly  much 
in  use  for  collecting  and  keeping  water ;  but  lead  has  proved  very 
dangerous,  not  only  in  this  shape,  l)ut  when  used  in  roofs  from 
M'hich  water  is  collected  for  domestic  use.  This  material  being 
much  more  expensive  than  iron,  as  well  as  unsafe,  we  suppose  it 
will  soon  be  superseded  entirely  for  these  purposes.  The  small 
leaden  pipes,  with  their  convenient  flexibility,  seem  as  yet  to 
maintain  a  position  among  the  water  fixtures  of  large  eities ;  the 
absurd  maxim  that  what  is  most  costly  must  necessarily  be  best, 
seeming  to  be  the  principal  reason  that  this  dangerous  and  expen- 
sive material  continues  to  be  used  even  to  this  limited  extent. 
No  serious  accidents,  that  we  are  aware  of,  have  ever  occurred 
either  in  Philadelphia  or  New  York  from  this  cause.  This  ex- 
emption appears  due  to  the  salts  and  organic  matter  in  the  water, 
forming  promptly  a  solid  coating  like  paint  on  the  interior  sur- 
face of  the  leaden  tube,  in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  further  corro- 
sion. Another  reason  is,  perha})S,  the  great  abundance  and  con- 
sequent waste  of  ^\•atcr  ;  so  that  a  person  drawing  a  vessel  of  water 
for  use  generally  allows  a  quantity  to  run  to  waste  first,  thus  un- 
consciously rejecting  all  the  water  which  has  remained  any  time  in 
contact  with  the  pipes. 

Zinc  and  co])per,  it  should  not  be  forgotten,  are  likewise  cajiable 
of  poisoning  the  water  which  remains  long  in  contact  with  them. 


CHAPTER    XII. 


ALCOHOLIC   AND    VINOUS    DRINKS EUM — 13 1!*. 

The  more  ciirefully  I  have  explored  tlie  question,  the  more  I  have  become 
convinced  that  tlie  undue  use  and  uneontrolled  employment  of  alcoliolic  drinks 
is  an  enemy  whicli  the  physician  and  the  philosopher  ought  most  to  fear  in  its 
opposition  to  the  progress  of  humanity. — Bouchakdat. 

(99.)  We  treat  of  alcoholic  and  vinous  drinks  together,  not 
because  they  are  identical,  absolutely,  but  because  tliey  are  of  so 
little  use  as  mere  drinks,  and  because  they  are  all  liable  to  abuse 
in  the  same  way,  with  the  same  pitiable  results.  Alcohol  sepa- 
rated by  distillation  from  the  vinous  liquors  in  which  it  is  formed 
acquires  new  properties,  and  can  never,  by  mixing,  be  restored 
to  the  same  intimate  association  with  the  other  material  of  the 
wine  as  it  previously  possessed.  Mixed  alcoholic  drinks  appear, 
for  some  reason,  much  more  injurious  than  wines  containing  an 
equal  proportion  of  alcohol.  "  Alcohol  by  itself  may  be  stated, 
in  relation  to  the  human  economy,  to  be  nothing  but  an  irritant 
poison.  It  cannot  enter  the  system  except  in  small  quantities 
associated  with  comparatively  large  quantities  of  water ;  and  even 
then  it  produces  poisonous  eiFects,  which  are  familiarly  known 
from  daily  observation." — [Carpenter.) 

(100.)  Some  of  the  principal  alcoholic  and  vinous  liquors  con- 
tain alcohol  or  its  elements  in  about  the  proportions  indicated  in 
the  followino;  table : 


Liquors. 


Eectified  spirits  of  wine  (s.  g.  835), 

Proof  spirits  (s.g.  935), 

Brandy,  whisky,  and  rum, 

Port  wine,  Sherry,  and  INIadeira,  mixed  with  brandy,  for  the 

English  and  American  markets, 

Port,  Sherry,  and  IMadeira,  prepared  for  use  in  the  countries 

where  produced, 


WATER.  ALCOHOL. 


50 
75 

80 

90 
95 


50 
25 
20 

10 


84  ,  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  101. 

Various  other  ^vines  contain  still  less  alcohol  associated  with 
the  acids  and  other  material  of  the  fruits.  Cider  is  a  vinous 
liquor  prepared  from  a])ples ;  perry,  from  pears ;  currant  wine, 
from  currants ;  beer,  from  barley,  etc.  They  differ  from  wine 
only  in  containing  the  acids  and  salts  of  the  fruits  from  which 
they  are  derived,  instead  of  the  acids  of  grapes. 

These  liquors  may  all  have  their  use  medicinally.  "  Give 
strong  drink  unto  him  that  is  ready  to  perish." — Prov.  xxxi. 
"Use  a  little  wine  for  thy  stomach's  sake  and  thine  often  infirmi- 
ties."— 1  Tim.  V,  23.  But  medical  prescription  is  not  now  our 
object.  Some  of  them,  doubtless,  had  their  hygienic  value,  being 
capable  of  aifording  variety  and  a  grateful  change  from  mere 
water,  Avhen  tea  and  coffee  were  unknown.  They  have  always 
been  liable  to  abuse,  and  we  may  quote  the  most  important  hy- 
gienic maxims  in  regard  to  them  from  literature  almost  as  old  as 
the  flood.     Thus  we  read  in  Proverbs  xxiii : 

20.  Be  not  among  wine-bibbers ;  among  riotous  eaters  of  flesh. 

21.  For  the  drunkard  and  the  glutton  shall  come  to  poverty,  and  drowsiness 
shall  clothe  a  man  with  rags. 

29.  Who  hath  woe  ?  Who  hath  sorrow  ?  Who  hath  contentions  ?  Who 
hath  babbling?  Who  hath  wounds  without  cause?  Who  hath  redness  of 
eyes? 

30.  They  that  tarry  long  at  the  wine ;  they  that  go  to  seek  mixed  wine. 
32.  At  the  last  it  biteth  like  a  serpent  and  stingeth  like  an  adder. 

(101.)  Though  very  sure  of  the  evils  of  any  more  habit  of 
drinking,  we  would  not  be  understood  to  say  that  there  is  no 
good  use  for  any  of  these  liquors.  Brandy,  whisky,  and  rum  are 
precious  cordials  and  stimulants  in  many  emergencies ;  they  are 
capable  of  easy  preservation,  so  that  they  can  be  carried,  in  good 
condition,  to  any  part  of  the  world.  In  pharmacy,  alcohol  is  an 
important  agent  in  obtaining  the  vegetalile  alkaloids,  which  are 
among  the  most  powerful  and  convenient  of  all  medicines ;  it  is 
exceedingly  useful  in  preserving  the  medicinal  properties  of  many 
vegetable  and  mineral  substances;  and  we  need  not  omit  that  it 
is  very  useful  in  preserving  anatomical  preparations  and  natural 
history  sjiecimeus.  But  for  all  this,  the  man  is  very  unfortunate, 
a  real  object  of  pity,  who  has  reduced  his  system  to  the  necessity 
of  receiving  a  cordial  of  this  kind  every  day. 

We  are  much  accustomed  to  hear  the  ill  effects  of  alcoholic 


§  103.  ]  BRANDY.  .  85 

drinks  attributed  to  their  bad  quality  and  adulteration.  But  the 
suli)huric  acid  added  to  give  a  pleasant  ethereal  odor,  and  the 
various  peppers  and  spices  added  to  give  pungency,  are  very  in- 
nocent articles  as  compared  Avith  the  intoxicating  alcohol  which 
is  a  necessary  and  constant  constituent.  We  do  not  entertain  so 
good  an  opinion  of  strychnine,  popularly  known  as  an  effective 
poison  for  dogs,  or  Cocculus  indicus ;  and  these  are  said  to  be 
occasionally  added  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  intoxicating 
power  of  these  liquors. 

(102.)  Brandy  and  other  alcoholic  liquors  lose  much  of  their 
intoxicating  property  and  improve  in  flavor  with  age.  When 
preserved  in  oaken  casks,  as  is  the  rule,  there  is  considerable  loss 
of  alcohol  by  evaporation,  and  a  still  larger  proportional  loss  of 
various  poisonous  empyreumatic  oils;  and  what  is  still  more 
characteristic,  there  is  dissolved  tannin,  coloring  matter,  and 
whatever  else  is  soluble  about  the  oak.  This  gives  to  brandy 
the  color  which  belongs  to  it,  for  it  comes  from  the  still  limpid 
as  water.  The  dealers  have  a  way  of  giving  age  without  this 
tedious  and  expensive  process.  They  give  the  required  color 
with  a  little  burnt  sugar.  They  supply  the  tannin  and  other  oak 
material  with  extract  of  bark  or  parings  of  leather  from  the 
shoemaker's  shops,  and  they  may  get  rid  of  the  empyreumatic 
oils  by  filtering  through  charcoal.  So  far  we  consider  the  adul- 
terations comparatively  innocent — only  swindling.  Gross  adul- 
terations may  be  detected  by  chemical  reagents,  but  the  only  test 
of  genuine  liquors  is  the  aroma. 

(103.)  Since  the  general  use  of  tea  and  coffee  has  superseded 
wine  as  the  beverage  of  the  morning  and  evening  meals,  it  seems 
impossible,  except  where  the  grape  culture  forms  a  leading  object 
of  industry,  to  obtain  wine  of  good  quality  without  foreign 
admixture.  The  best  generally  obtainable  with  us  are  port, 
Madeira,  and  sherry,  as  usually  prepared  for  the  English  market. 
These  are  mixed  with  brandy  to  the  extent  of  about  t^venty  per 
cent.,  partly  to  give  the  degree  of  pungency  which  the  palate  of 
the  liquor  drinkers  requires,  and  partly  to  preserve  it  from  change. 
So  that,  as  beverages,  these  wines  are  little  better  than  brandy  in 
disguise ;  but  for  medicinal  i)urposes  these  brandied  wines  are 
well  adapted,  and  have  the  great  advantage  that  without  any 
special  care  they  are  preserved  in  a  pretty  uniform  condition   for 


86  NAVAL   HYGIENE.  [  §  104. 

a  long  time.  AVith  genuine  M'ines  this  is  very  far  from  being  the 
case,  for  without  special  care  the  fermentation  continues  and 
breaks  some  of  the  bottles,  and  some  of  the  Avine  is  partially  con- 
verted to  vinegar.  The  Avines  arc  found  in  the  market  in  various 
stages  of  progressive  acidity,  and  this  condition  is  apt  to  be  dis- 
p-uised  bv  acetate  of  lead  and  various  other  druw-s  which  it  is  most 
important  to  avOid. 

(104.)  The  first  conspicuous  result  of  alcoholic  intoxication  is 
feebleness  of  muscular  power,  a  tendency  to  general  ])aralysis. 
At  first  the  ends  of  the  fingers  become  enfeebled ;  the  person  can 
but  imperfectly  close  the  hand,  and  permits  objects  which  he  has 
grasped  to  fall.  This  weakness  extends  to  the  arm  and  shoulder. 
It  soon  appears  in  the  legs ;  the  gait  is  tottering  and  uncertain. 
In  connection  with  this  is  a  marked  loss  or  diminution  of  sen- 
sation. This  commences  with  a  dulness  of  the  sense  of  touch  in 
the  fingers  and  gradually  extends  over  the  whole  body.  The 
natural  propensities  are  obliterated,  but  modesty  and  discretion 
being  absent  at  the  same  time,  the  victims  are  frequently  led  to 
disgraceful  acts  which  at  other  times  they  would  avoid.  Drunk- 
ards become  subject  to  fits,  generally  ej^ileptic.  AVith  respect  to 
the  intellectual  faculties,  a  settled  stupidity  overwhelms  them. 
The  memory  is  weakened.  The  countenance  indicates  stupidity 
and  sloth.  The  effects  on  the  digestive  system  call  for  particular 
attention.  The  effect  of  drams,  not  very  much  diluted,  is  to 
stimulate  and  thicken  the  lining  of  the  mouth  and  other  surfaces 
with  which  the  liquor  comes  in  contact.  A  fev,'  drams  may  not 
produce  any  very  appreciable  effect  in  this  way ;  but  the 
person  addicted  to  the  habit  of  a  morning  dram,  who  never  gets 
drunk,  does  suffer  in  this  way.  The  mouth  is  commonly  dry, 
especially  in  the  morning ;  the  tongue  thick  and  cleft;  there  is 
uneasiness  at  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  Avith  distaste  for  solid  food, 
and  jierhaj^s  vomiting.  Diluted  alcohol  is  readily  absorbed  by 
the  stomach  in  this  condition,  and  promptly  relieves  the  feeling 
for  the  nionuMit.  But  this  is  not  the  case  with  solid  food,  which, 
not  having  a  healthy  stomach  to  digest  it,  putrefies,  and  the  suf- 
ferer becomes  saturated  with  the  gases  of  putrefaction,  readily 
perceived  in  his  breath,  and  sometimes  in  his  perspiration.  He 
smells  like  carrion.  The  liver  usually  becomes  diseased  ;  at  first 
enlarged  by  f^itty  degeneration,  but  later,  the  fat  being  absorbed. 


§  104.  ]  ALCOHOLIC    INTOXICATION.  87 

induration  is  produced — cirrhosis  (l  pet  its  grains — tlie  true  drunk- 
ard's liver.  Tlic  consequence  of  this  is  ineural)le  abdominal 
dropsv,  eventually  fatal.  The  course  of  nutrition  undcu"  the  use 
of  alcohol,  however,  may  be  stated  to  be,  in  the  first  place,  exag- 
geration; the  individual  addicted  to  drink  becomes  fuller  in 
habit,  with  injection  of  the  skin  and  redness  of  the  face.  As  the 
organs  become  diseased  with  the  deposit  of  fat  in  them,  their 
functional  actions  become  embarrassed,  and  tlien,  with  depraved 
digestion  and  the  abstraction  of  the  proper  elements  of  repara- 
tion, the  blood  becomes  watery,  and  with  impeded  circulation  in 
the  heart  or  liver,  dropsical  effusions,  general  or  local,  are  inevit- 
able. The  first  augmentation  of  size  is  from  the  increase  of  fat 
in  all  the  tissues ;  the  second  is  from  serous  effusions.  This 
latter  condition  is  known  in  common  language  as  the  "  white 
bloat." 

The  social  use  of  alcoholic  drinks,  as  a  physiological  question, 
is  still  under  discussion  in  England.  The  consumption  of  these 
articles  is  so  enormous  that  many  men  do  not  easily  submit  to 
Dr.  Carpenter's  opinions,  and  we  have  hence  quite  a  number  of 
elaborate  arguments  in  defence  of  the  custom.  We  quote  from 
the  London  Lancet  part  of  the  conclusion  of  one  of  these  articles  : 

"Again,  the  teetotalers  contend  that  in  case  of  alcohol  it  is  impossible  to  de- 
fine moderation  and  excess ;  but  this  is  equally  true  of  tea,  coflee,  salt,  sugar, 
pepper,  and  many  other  things The  truth  is,  there  is  a  certain  recog- 
nized standard  quantity  of  alcohol,  salt,  sugar,  tea,  coffee,  etc.,  which  all  men 
agree  to  call  moderate,  and  the  difficulty  is  not  greater  in  the  case  of  alcohol 
than  of  any  other  article  of  daily  consumption." 

"VYe  are  ready  to  admit  the  difficulty  of  defining  with  precision 
the  quantity  of  sugar  and  pepper  which  each  person  should  use, 
and  even,  for  the  sake  of  argument,  that  some  persons  use  these 
articles  rather  freely  ;  but  the  journalist  will  hardly  convince  us 
that  such  deplorable  consequences  as  we  have  described  as  com- 
monly resulting  from  indulgence  in  alcoholic  intoxication  ever 
result  from  excess  in  the  use  of  salt,  pepper,  tea,  coffee,  sugar, 
etc.  "We  have  never  known  the  habit  of  using  these  things  in 
excess  to  grow  irresistibly  on  the  individual  to  such  a  degree  as 
to  destroy  or  break  up  his  family. 


88  NAVAL   HYGIENE.  [  §  104. 

The  rejoinder  may  as  well  be  so  stated,  that  even  the  drunk- 
ard will  not  be  likely  to  misunderstand  it.  By  the  use  of  alco- 
holic drinks,  men  are  so  demented  that  it  has  been  found  neces- 
sary to  establish  special  asylums  and  hospitals  for  tlfeir  care — to 
restrain  them  in  the  use  of  liquor,  to  enforce  bathing  and  clean 
clothes,  with  small  hope  of  eventual  cure.  We  know  persons 
who  use  salt  profusely,  but  they  are  not  so  demented  as  to  need 
special  asylums.  They  do  not  crowd  the  hospitals  for  insane,  the 
jails,  the  almshouses. 


CHAPTER     XIII. 

OTHER    DRINKS — AROMATIC ACIDULOUS FARINACEOUS. 

(105.)  Tea  and  coffee  are  very  rapidly  superseding  the  dan- 
gerous vinous  and  alcoholic  drinks  as  ordinary  beverages  at 
meals.  There  is  nothing  but  advantage  in  this  change.  Other 
aromatic  infusions  may  occasionally  replace  these  advantageously. 
Chocolate  requires  to  be  associated  with  spice  as  a  rule  ;  it  is 
otherwise  too  ftit  and  heavy  for  most  persons.  The  Paraguay  tea 
and  Carolina  tea  are  probably  just  as  good,  hygienically,  as  the 
China  tea,  if  they  could  only  be  collected  and  prepared  for  mar- 
ket with  the  same  degree  of  neatness  and  precision.  The  imita- 
tions of  coffee,  made  of  parched  corn,  rye,  beans,  chiccory,  etc., 
are  not  to  be  despised  when  the  genuine  article  is  not  to  be  ob- 
tained ;  the  parching  being  carried  a  little  further  than  is  proper 
wdth  coifee,  develops  empyreumatic  flavors  which  do  not  differ 
greatly  from  those  found  in  the  best  coffee  when  parched  too 
much.  There  must  be  something  about  these  hot  aromatic  infu- 
sions very  much  in  accordance  with  the  wants  of  civilized  man, 
which  has  caused  the  rapid  spread  of  their  use  over  the  tem- 
perate regions  of  the  globe  in  modern  times.  We  have  already 
alluded  to  the  possible  necessity  of  using  the  unwholesome  water 
of  marshes,  and  have  recommended  that  it  be  boiled  to  deprive  it 
of  its  poisonous  properties.  But  mere  boiling  rendei's  it  insipid, 
and  unwholesome  from  want  of  flavor.  It  hence  becomes  desir- 
able to  give  such  water  flavor,  and  this  may  be  done  by  infusing 
tea  or  any  aromatic  substance  at  hand  Avhich  may  be  found  ^ 
agreeable.  We  would  recommend  the  use  of  almost  any  aro- 
matic or  bitter  weed  of  the  forest,  not  actually  poisonous,  rather 
than  the  drinking  of  crude  marsh- water.  The  infusion  of  sassa- 
fras, used  in  some  parts  of  our  country,  furnishes,  in  some  cases, , 
no  doubt,  an  agreeable  variety ;  but  it  has  not  much  to  recom- 
mend it  unless  it  be  medicinally  or  in  exceptional  cases.  Its 
flavor  is  rather  unpleasant  to  most  persons. 


90  NAVAL   HYGIENE.  [  §  108. 

(106.)  Tlie  vegetable  acids  form  a  constant  and  probaljly  essen- 
tial part  in  every  good  system  of  alimentation,  especially  in  the 
tropics.  We  know  so  little  of  the  manner  of  their  action  that 
we  really  have  nothing  to  say  on  the  subject,  except  that  experi- 
ence appears  to  have  demonstrated  their  necessity,  and  that  there 
are  physiological  necessities  in  the  animal  economy  to  which 
chemical  analyses  and  formula3  aiford  us  no  clue.  These  acids 
are  ordinarily  supplied  by  the  fruits  and  fresh  vegetables  which 
form  part  of  our  daily  food  ;  but  at  sea  this  is  no  longer  the  case, 
and  the  pickles  and  dried  fruits  of  the  ration  seem  not  to  be  al- 
ways a  sufficient  substitute.  There  is  hence  a  necessity  for  these 
acids  in  some  other  shape,  and  we  have  some  of  them,  in  various 
forms,  preserved  for  sea  use,  as  vinegar,  lemon-juice,  citric  acid, 
tartaric  acid,  bitartrate  of  potassa,  and  claret  and  other  acid  wines. 
These,  besides  their  use  as  condiments,  are  variously  mixed  with 
water,  sugar  and  aromatics  to  form  drinks,  which,  used  with 
moderation  and  discretion,  are  very  advantageous  in  warm 
weather. 

(107.)  Vinegar  is  generally  allowed  at  discretion  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  when  mixed  with  a  proper  portion  of  Avater,  sugar,  or 
molasses  and  nutmeg,  makes  a  very  refreshing  drink  for  a  thirsty 
man,  as  he  rests  from  active  labor,  in  warm  weather.  Vinegar, 
besides  acetic  acid,  contains  a  good  portion  of  malic,  tartaric,  and 
other  acids  of  the  fruits  from  which  it  is  derived,  as  well  as  some 
other  material  (nitrogenous?)  of  the  fruit.  It  certainly  serves 
an  excellent  purpose  in  the  prevention  of  scorbutus,  sea  scurvy. 
But  vinegar  for  this  purpose  should  be  made  only  from  the  juice 
of  fruits. 

(108.)  Lime  or  lemon  juice  is  perhaps  even  better  than  vinegar. 
It  is  not  regularly  furnished  in  our  naval  service,  except  medici- 
nally ;  but  with  the  English  the  greatest  reliance  is  placed  in  it, 
and  their  comparative  immunity  from  scorbutus  in  modern  times 
is  generally  attributed  to  the  use  of  this  article.  It  is  issued 
daily,  after  the  first  fourteen  days  at  sea,  in  the  quantity  of  half 
an  ounce  to  each  man.  This  is  imbibed  in  the  shape  of  lemon- 
ade at  dinner,  and  adds  prodigiously  to  the  health  and  efficiency 
of  the  crew.  The  lime-juice  for  this  purpose,  after  being  j)ressed 
from  the  fruit,  is  simmered  so  as  to  coagulate  most  of  the  albu- 
men, strained  and  mixed  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  proof  spirit 


§  108.  ]  LIGHT   ACID   WINES.  91 

to  preserve  it  t'rom  fcrnK'ntation,  covered  Avith  olive  oil,  corked 
and  sealed.  Besides  citric  acid,  it  contains,  especially  when 
freshly  prepared,  other  vegetable  matter  inijjortant  to  healthy  nu- 
trition. When  long  kept  it  undergoes  further  changes,  and  in  the 
instances  in  which  we  have  had  occasion  to  use  it  after  being  thus 
kept,  it  appeared  in  no  way  superior  to  a  solution  of  crystals  of 
citric  acid.  It  is  common  to  attribute  the  disappearance  of  scor- 
butus in  modern  times  to  the  use  of  this  substance,  but  we  must 
take  into  the  account  the  general  improvement  of  the  seamen's 
rations  in  other  respects,  introduced  at  the  same  time.  There  is 
no  more  of  this  disease  in  our  service  or  the  French  than  in  the 
English,  though  preserved  lime-juice  forms  no  part  of  the  ration 
with  us.  The  English  have  a  great  advantage  in  the  svstematic 
perseverance  with  M'hich  it  is  issuwl  as  soon  as  the  prescribed  four- 
teen days  have  elapsed.  Citric  acid  dissolved  in  water  in  the 
proper  proportion,  with  a  little  oil  of  lemon,  makes  a  more  pleas- 
ant lemonade  and  is  jjerhaps  nearly  as  useful  as  the  lemon-juice, 
and  it  possesses  one  certain  advantage,  as  its  crystals  may  be  pre- 
served for  any  length  of  time  without  change.  Tartaric  acid 
may  be  used  in  the  same  way  Avith  the  same  beneficial  results, 
and  may  be  given  advantageously  in  alternation  with  citric  acid. 
Bitartrate  of  potassa,  cream  of  tartar,  is  likewise  useful  on  some 
occasions,  but  its  sparing  solubility  is  a  decided  inconvenience, 
and  it  probably  possesses  in  a  much  less  degree  the  useful  prop- 
erties which  belong  to  all  these  substances. 

Lif/ht  acid  icine.'^,  such  as  the  wines  of  Bordeaux — vin  de  cam- 
pagne  of  the  French  ration — must  be  classed  here.  They  are 
saturated  with  the  vegetable  acids, — tartaric,  citric,  and  malic, 
together  with  their  salts,  and  they  contain  very  little  alcohol,  just 
enough  to  preserve  them  from  decomposition — about  as  much  as 
is  added  in  the  English  preparation  of  lime-juice.  This  wine  is 
certainly  an  excellent  antiscorbutic,  not  at  all  inferior  to  lime-juice. 
But  I  would  not  encourage  its  introduction  into  the  ration,  simply 
because  it  is  wine,  of  an  austere  acid  flavor,  that  our  sailors  do  not 
like,  and  if  we  encourage  among  them  the  idea  that  there  is  any 
good  property  in  wine,  they  will  surely  seek  occasionally  for  ^^•ine 
more  to  their  liking.     The  drunkard's  craving  "  is  not  dead." 

These  acid  drinks  are  liable  to  abuse.  In  warm  weather  there 
is  such  a  pleasant  feeling  of  refreshment  as  the  immediate  result 


92  NAVAL   HYGIENE.  [  §  109. 

of  a  driuk  that  the  habit  is  readily  formed  of  taking  it  too  fre- 
quently. The  result  is  pain  and  cramp  of  the  bowels,  with  some- 
times a  little  diarrhcBa.  These  unpleasant  symptoms  promptly 
disappear  when  the  acid  drinks  are  discontinued.  It  is  in  the 
absence  of  fruits  at  sea  that  they  are  really  useful. 

(109.)  Farinaceous  Drinks. — On  board  steamships  the  firemen 
employed  about  the  furnaces  are  sometimes  greatly  exhausted  by 
heat.  Their  profuse  perspiration  renders  a  large  quantity  of  water 
necessary  to  supply  the  waste.  The  ingestion  of  clear  water  under 
these  circumstances  appears  to  answer  very  imperfectly  the  wants 
of  the  system.  It  seems  to  pass  through  the  circulation  to  the 
skin,  percolate  as  through  a  sieve,  and  flow  over  the  surfoce  of 
the  body  in  streams.  A  large  drink  of  cold  or  even  cool  water, 
under  these  circumstances,  on  an  empty  stomach,  is  very  danger- 
ous, and  liable  to  produce  death  with  almost  the  suddenness  of  an 
electric  shock.  Great  practical  advantage  has  been  obtained  by 
mixing  farinaceous  substances,  particularly  oatmeal,  with  the 
water  to  be  used  by  the  men  employed  at  this  kind  of  labor. 

The  oatmeal  is  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  three  or  four  ounces 
to  the  gallon  of  water,  and  used  according  to  inclination  by  the 
firemen  and  coal-heavers.  It  might  be  difficult  to  determine  why 
oatmeal,  for  this  purpose,  should  be  better  than  cornmeal,  or  buck- 
wheat, or  rye,  wlieat,  millet,  etc.,  but  the  firemen  themselves  seem 
to  think  it  has  the  effect  of  making  them  as  strong  as  horses.  We 
may  safely  alloAV  something  for  this  sort  of  prejudice,  which  we 
know  to  be  very  potent  among  the  influences  on  health  and  dis- 
ease. The  peculiar  aroma  of  the  oats  is  probably  associated  with 
a  pleasant  degree  of  stimulation  of  the  alimentary  mucous  surfaces 
in  such  a  way  as  to  promote  its  complete  digestion.  It  seems  to 
fill  the  bloodvessels  without  increasing  the  amount  of  cutaneous 
exhalations.  The  men  occasionally  try  acid,  saccharine,  and  al- 
coholic drinks  as  substitutes  for  the  oats,  but  always  with  unsatis- 
factory results,  except  that  they  find  molasses  and  Avater  better 
than  clear  water,  and  they  who  are  disposed  to  insist  on  the  ex- 
cellence of  rum  and  whisky,  luider  all  circumstances,  petition  for 
these,  and  experience  after  each  ingestion  a  momentary  relief,  fol- 
lowed by  additional  profusencss  of  perspiration  and  additional  ex- 
haustion. 

The  atiolnj  of  our  Indians  is  a  mitritive  beverage  of  this  kind. 


§  109.  ]  FARINACEOUS    DRINKS.  93 

used  principally  at  the  South  and  tlirono-hout  IMcxico.  It  is 
made  by  parchino;  their  corn  (maize)  or  other  grain,  pounding  it 
to  meal  in  a  suitable  cavity  of  a  rock,  A\ith  a  smooth  stone,  and 
mixing  it  with  a  little  sugar  if  they  have  it.  About  a  tablesjioou- 
ful  of  this  is  stirred  with  a  pint  of  water  from  the  spring,  and 
swallowed  at  two  or  three  drinks,  according  to  inclination.  An 
Indian,  provided  with  about  two  pounds  of  attoley  in  a  little  l)ag, 
is  prepared  to  perform  the  most  fatiguing  and  dangerous  journey 
of  two  or  three  weeks,  without  expecting  any  assistance  or  supplies 
by  the  way  except  water  from  the  spring  or  brook  twice  a  day. 
He  appropriates,  of  course,  any  little  food  which  comes  in  his  way, 
but  when  this  amounts  to  next  to  nothing  he  comes  out  of  such 
an  expedition  without  much  apparent  suifering  or  inconvenience. 
Nearly  any  other  grain  or  grass  seed  seems  to  answer  the  purpose, 
though  the  Indian  corn  is  generally  preferred.  The  California 
Indians  make  a  similar  preparation  by  parching  and  pounding 
the  seeds  of  a  species  of  pine.  This  they  call  pinoley,  and  seem 
to  think  it  nearly  as  good  as  the  atole  de  mais,  Indian  corn  atto- 
ley. The  parching  has  the  effect  of  bursting  the  grains  of  starch 
and  rendering  the  meal  thus  prepared  more  readily  miscible  with 
water;  it  likewise  develops  a  peculiar  aroma,  due  to  resulting 
empyreumatic  substances,  which  is  probably  advantageous,  by 
affording  a  comfortable  stimulus  to  the  stomach  and  thus  promot- 
ing digestion.  The  use  of  these  preparations  may  be  considered 
as  demonstrating  that  a  very  small  quantity  of  food,  when  fully 
digested  and  assimilated,  is  capable  of  supplying  the  waste  of  the 
system  even  through  extraordinary  labor  and  fatigue. 


CHAPTER    XIY 


THE  PRESERVATION  OF  FOOD. 


(110.)  The  solid  food  required  by  the  human  organism  is  prin- 
cipally supplied  by  three  or  four  species  of  animals,  which,  on 
account  of  their  peculiar  adaptation,  have  been  domesticated  for 
this  special  purpose,  and  by  such  fruits  and  vegetables  as  are 
neither  poisonous  nor  inconveniently  hard  and  fibrous.  The 
preservation  of  these  substances  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  them 
available  as  nutriment  at  sea,  is  of  vast  importance.  The  pro- 
cesses which  are  most  effective  in  preventing  ordinary  decay  or 
putrefaction,  destroy,  at  the  same  time,  in  various  degrees,  the 
nutritive  properties  of  the  substance  preserved. 

(111.)  Salting,  packing  in  salt,  seems  ^\ath  us  to  be  the  most 
generally  available  method  of  preserving  the  flesh  of  animals  in 
a  condition  to  be  used  for  food.  Muscular  flesh,  as  beef,  when 
fully  subjected  to  the  action  of  salt  for  a  length  of  time,  becomes 
unsuitably  hard  and  probably  undergoes  other  changes  which 
render  it  nearly  incapable  of  digestion  by  the  human  organism. 
The  other  animal  tissues,  especially  fat,  probably  undergo  less 
change.  Hence  fat  beef,  when  salted,  remains  good  much  longer 
than  lean,  and  the  muscular  tissue  of  pork,  being  much  more 
thoroughly  imbued  with  ftit,  is  comparatively  indestructible  when 
packed  in  salt.  Pork  seems  never  to  degenerate,  as  beef  does, 
into  a  maliogany-like  substance,  beyond  the  powei-s  of  the  teeth 
to  masticate. 

(112.)  Drying  seems  to  be  the  most  generally  available  means 
of  preserving  alimentary  substances.  Nature  furnishes  us  many 
dry  vegetable  substances,  especially  small  seeds,  capable  in  this 
state  of  almost  indefinite  preservation.  If  the  seed  be  once 
broken,  as  grain  is  in  the  i>reparation  of  flour,  and  its  vitality 
thus  destroyed,  its  preservation  is  much  more  difficult  and  i)re- 
cturious.    Very  many  fruits  and  vegetables — ^apples,  pears,  peaches , 


§  113.  ]  PRESERVATION    OF    FOOD.  95 

plums,  chcrriGS,  etc., — are  capable  of  a  useful  degree  of  ]>reser- 
vatiou  by  merely  drying  them  in  the  open  air.  Meat  in  some 
countries  is  more  generally  preseryed  by  drying  than  by  any 
other  process.  The  muscular  flesh  is  cut  from  the  ])ones  in  long 
thin  strips,  and  these  are  hung  in  the  open  air  to  dry ;  the  dry- 
ing is  somewhat  promoted  and  the  flies  kept  off  or  annoyed  in 
their  operations  by  a  yery  smoky  fire.  The  flesh  of  the  l)unock, 
by  this  operation,  is  converted  into  hard  strings  and  knots  of  no 
very  pleasant  fragrance,  called  jerked  beef.  It  is  so  hard  and 
intractable  after  this  kind  of  preparation,  that  soaking,  boiling, 
and  stewing  are  scarcely  sufficient  to  bring  it  within  ordinary 
powers  of  mastication  without  a  preliminary  beating  with  a 
hammer,  so  as  to  separate  somewhat  the  fibres.  This  kind  of 
meat  is  the  resort  of  hunters  across  the  desert  plains,  and  on  all 
occasions  when  their  hunting  does  not  supply  them  sufliciently 
with  fresh  game.  Likewise  on  the  grazing  farms  of  Spanish 
America  it  is  the  universal  manner  of  curing  meat  for  their  own 
use  during  the  season  of  poor  cattle.  As  we  have  never  tasted 
this  meat  and  have  had  very  little  o])portunity  of  observing  its 
use,  we  may  not  be  able  to  estimate  its  value  correctly ;  but  we 
have  never  heard  anything  about  it  to  induce  us  to  believe  that 
it  can  be  advantageously  used  much  more  extensively  than  at 
present.  Its  comparatively  small  bulk,  light  weight,  and  easy 
transportation,  render  it  valuable  to  the  hunter  as  a  precaution 
against  starvation  in  the  various  emergencies  of  forest  life. 

Eapid  desiccation,  at  a  moderate  temperature,  as  it  may  be 
effected  in  a  vacuum,  is  one  of  the  valuable  processes  of  recent 
invention  for  the  preservation  of  vegetable  food.  Almost  every 
variety  of  vegetables  may  be  preserved  in  this  v.aY  with  nuicli  of 
their  original  flavor.  They  are  not  injured  by  heat,  as  is  apt  to 
be  the  case  with  vegetables  dried  in  an  oven,  or  by  decay,  as 
occurs  by  drying  by  long  exposure  to  the  air.  Vegetables  dried 
in  this  way  and  packed  in  air-tight  tin  cans,  are  preserved  in  any 
climate  for  a  very  long  time  without  much  apparent  change,  and 
by  immersion  for  an  hour  or  two  in  fresh,  cold  water,  before 
cooking,  they  acquire  much  of  the  bulk  and  fragrance  which  be- 
long to  them  as  fresh  vegetables. 

(113.)  Smoking  is,  under  certain  circumstances,  a  valuable 
method,  in  conjunction  with  those  already  mentioned,  of  prcserv- 


96  ^'AVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  114. 

ing'  moat.  The  smoke  gives  its  antiseptic  creasote  to  the  meat, 
imparting  a  pleasant  flavor  at  the  same  time  that  it  assists  in  its 
jM-escrvation.  It  gives  to  the  surface  of  the  meat  a  crust  so 
highly  cliarged  with  creasote  as  to  be  very  offensive,  perhaps  even 
destructive,  to  insects  whicli  iiiiuht  be  otherwise  injurious.  But 
mere  smoking  is  not  sufficient  to  cure  meat.  Hams,  moderately 
salted  and  considerably  dried  during  the  process  of  smoking,  are 
well  preserved  and  universally  liked ;  and  other  parts  of  the  hog 
treated  in  the  same  way  are  pretty  generally  appreciated.  Some 
pieces  of  beef,  particularly  the  rounds,  are  occasionally  preserved 
in  the  same  way,  but  it  is  liable  to  become  mouldy  in  a  short 
time  unless  pretty  thoroughly  dried,  and  if  too  much  dried  it  is 
so  hard  as  not  to  be  of  much  use.  Neither  hams  nor  bacon  seem 
to  be  generally  available  for  long  voyages,  except  as  an  occasional 
luxury  or  relief  from  the  monotonous  diet  necessarily  connected 
with  them.  In  this  limited  degree  they  are  very  useful  in  im- 
proving the  diet  and  thus  preserving  the  health  of  those  who  go 
to  sea. 

(114.)  Immersion  in  oil,  so  as  to  prevent  the  direct  action  of 
the  atmosphere,  is  found  greatly  to  retard  though  not  altogether 
to  prevent  putrefaction.  Sardines  thus  preserved  are  now  com- 
mon in  most  seaport  towns.  The  oil  and  the  necessary  labor  of 
packing  them  neatly  for  preservation,  render  them  too  expensive 
for  very  general  use ;  but  they  are  very  useful  occasionally  to 
vary  the  monotony  of  sea  diet.  It  is  in  connection  with  other 
preservative  processes  that  immersion  in  fat  or  oil  may  become 
valnaljle,  and  is  probably  capable  of  great  extension.  The  best 
preserved  fish  we  have  ever  seen  on  shipboard  were  herrings, 
which  had  been  salted  a  little,  just  as  much  as  is  required  to  give 
fresh  fish  a  proper  flavor  ;  smoked  a  little,  just  enough  to  be  per- 
ceptible; dried  a  little,  probably  in  the  process  of  smoking; 
trimmed  of  superfluous  parts,  heads,  tails,  and  fins,  and  packed 
in  small  tin  boxes,  with  oil,  in  the  maimer  of  sardines.  We 
think  this  process  of  preserving  herrings  for  use  at  sea  should 
become  common.  Properly  prepared  lard-oil  answers  the  pur- 
pose perfectly.  Other  species  of  fish  and  other  meats  may  doubt- 
less be  preserved  in  the  same  way.  It  is  a  common  thing  in 
families  to  preserve  sausages  in  this  way.  The  sausages  are  sea- 
soned as  usual  with  salt,  herbs,  and  spices,  varying  with  the  fancy 


§  115.  ]  PRESERVATION    OF    FOOD.  97 

of  the  different  hoiisekecper.s,  paeked  in  eartlienwure,  or  prefer- 
ably metallic  vessels,  and  covered  by  pouring  over  them  melted 
lard.  They  are  preserved  in  this  way  for  a  very  long  time.  W^e 
have  eaten  good  sausages  preserved  in  this  way,  which  had  crossed 
the  equator  and  been  carried  more  than  half  round  the  world. 
The  Indians  of  the  Northwest  preserve  the  flesh  of  the  bison 
somewhat  in  this  way.  In  the  season  when  the  animals  are  in 
good  order  whole  villages  start  on  himting  expeditions.  As  soon 
as  an  animal  is  slain  the  muscles  are  cut  into  strips  and  hung  up 
to  dry  as  in  preparing  jerked  beef;  but  before  it  is  thoroughly 
hardened  it  is  beaten  into  shreds,  packed  in  suitable  vessels,  and 
the  melted  fat  of  the  animal  poured  over  it.  Bison  beef,  thus 
prepared,  is  called  pemmican,  and  is  the  winter  food  of  several 
tribes.  Of  its  properties  as  food  we  know  little,  except  that 
these  people  are  fond  of  it  and  enjoy  health  while  using  it. 

(115.)  Immersion  in  vinegar  is  a  process  occasionally  available 
for  the  preservation  of  both  animal  and  vegetable  food.  It  de- 
prives the  food  thus  treated  of  all  natural  flavor,  and  substitutes 
its  own,  which  is  greatly  esteemed  in  some  of  the  articles  thus 
preserved.  They  are  exceedingly  pleasant  for  occasional  use. 
There  is  generally  some  spice  added  to  improve  the  flavor.  Pigs' 
feet  and  other  parts  of  the  animal  rich  in  gelatin,  boiled  and 
pickled  in  this  way,  are  an  occasional  luxury  everywhere  ;  and 
other  meats  are  sometimes  preserved  in  the  same  way.  There 
is  no  valid  objection,  that  ^\Q  are  aware  of,  against  preserving 
meat  in  tliLs  way  for  the  purpose  of  affording  additional  varieties 
of  diet.  It  has  never  been  tried  to  any  extent  on  shipboard. 
From  Dr.  Beaumont's  observations,  we  learn  that  meat  thus  pre- 
pared was  the  most  rapidly  digested  of  all  the  alimentary  sub- 
stances subjected  to  experiment.  We  feel  confident  that  great 
advantage  would  result,  in  long  voyages,  from  having  a  few  jars 
of  meat  thus  preserved,  to  issue  to  the  seamen,  as  a  relief  from 
the  monotony  of  the  usual  ration.  Whether  the  nutritive  prop- 
erties of  the  meat  are  impaired  by  this  process,  as  by  salting,  we 
believe  has  never  been  directly  determined ;  but  whatever  the 
change,  it  is  probably  so  different  in  character  from  the  change 
produced  by  salt,  that  an  occasional  meal  of  it  may  reasonably  be 
expected  to  correct,  in  some  degree,  the  bad  effects  of  a  long- 

7 


98  NAVAL    HYGIEXE.  [  §  116. 

continued  salt  diet.  The  vegetable  substances  preserved  in 
vinegar  are  principally  unripe  cucumbers  and  cauliflowers.  They 
are  now  a  regular  and  very  important  article  of  the  seaman's 
ration.  It  would  seem  that  the  refreshing  properties  of  fresh 
vegetables  are  more  perfectly  preserved  in  this  way  than  any 
other;  hence  the  value  of  these  pickles  as  antiscorbutics.  In 
case  of  deficiency  of  the  regular  pickles,  any  obtainable  vegetable, 
not  too  ripe,  or  almost  any  herb,  not  too  tough  and  fibrous,  sliould 
be  jiickled  for  this  purpose. 

Immersion  in  molasses  appears  to  be  an  available  process  for 
preserving  potatoes,  with  a  good  portion  of  their  antiscorbutic 
properties.  The  potatoes  are  pared,  sliced,  and  placed  in  a  barrel, 
which  is  then  filled  with  molasses.  They  become  quite  black  and 
pretty  hard,  but  our  whaling  ships  find  advantage  in  the  use  of 
them. 

(116.)  Heating  and  seclusion  from  tJie  atmosphere  is  another  val- 
uable device  for  preserving  food  for  a  time.  But  there  are  some 
important  prevalent  errors  on  this  subject.  We  often  see  it 
stated  that  putrefaction  cannot  take  place  without  the  presence  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  it  is  hence  inferred  that  animal  food  may  be 
indefinitely  preserved  by  perfectly  excluding  the  atmosphere. 
This  is  a  serious  mistake.  A  slow  putrefaction  goes  on,  as  any 
one  will  discover  who  undertakes  to  eat  meat  preserved  by  this 
process,  after  it  has  been  kept  four  or  five  months  in  the  tropics. 
Roast  beef,  roast  mutton,  turkeys,  fowls,  venison,  etc.,  undergo  a 
degree  of  decomposition,  become  soft  and  flavorless  or  disgusting ; 
not  in  the  way  of  flesh  freely  exposed  to  the  air,  but  in  a  way 
peculiar  to  themselves.  Soups,  rich  in  gelatin,  and  seasoned  wdth 
a  fair  portion  of  spice,  retain  their  natural  flavor  and  useful  prop- 
erties much  longer.  We  have  seen  some  fruits  and  vegetables — 
peaches,  pears,  asparagus,  and  tomatoes,  which  had  been  preserved 
for  years  by  this  process.  They  retained  much  of  their  natural 
flavor,  and  this  we  take  to  be  the  best  available  test  of  their  useful 
properties.  On  the  whole  this  must  be  included  among  the  useful 
means  of  preserving  a  variety  of  vegetables  for  a  long  time  in  a 
state  fit  for  food. 

We  must  guard  against  too  strong  a  reaction  against  this 
method,  and  probably  the  best  way  to  do  this  is  to  state  freely 


§  117.  ]  PRESERVATION    OF    FOOD.  99 

its  defects  and  difficulties  as  soon  as  they  are  recognized.  It  ap- 
pears that  the  heat,  in  this  case,  acts  by  killing  some  organic 
germs,  or  changing  tlie  condition  of  some  nitrogenous  material, 
which,  existing  both  in  the  meat  and  in  the  atmosphere,  act  the 
part  of  a  ferment  under  ordinary  circumstances.  It  would  seem 
that  the  absolute  exclusion  of  air  is  not  necessary,  but  that  any  in- 
cluded air  must  be  heated,  for  we  have  seen  this  process  success- 
fully conducted  by  persons  who  were  so  ignorant  as  to  suppose 
the  air  all  excluded,  simply  because  no  more  would  escape,  with 
the  boxes  exposed  to  the  heat  of  a  water-bath,  though  there  was 
considerable  space  in  the  vessels  not  occupied  either  by  fruit  or 
liquid.  Fruits  are  constantly  preserved  in  this  way  in  glass,  in 
which  the  liquid  shaken  up  exhibits  air-bubbles.  It  is  necessary 
that  the  inclosed  air,  as  well  as  the  fruit,  should  be  heated  to 
about  the  temperature  of  boiling  water ;  if  the  least  portion  of 
fresh  air  be  admitted,  ordinary  putrefaction  is  established  without 
delay. 

(117.)  Constant  cold  seems  capable  of  preserving  fresh  meat 
for  a  very  long  time.  A  few  years  ago,  in  Siberia,  a  carcass  of 
an  elephant  was  found  frozen  in  the  ice,  with  wolves,  foxes,  and 
bears  feeding  on  it,  though  there  is  no  evidence  of  such  an  animal 
having  lived  anywhere  since  the  invention  of  letters.  It  was 
common  to  preserve  fresh  fish  for  transportation  to  market,  by 
packing  them  in  ice,  long  before  ice  became  a  common  summer 
luxury.  It  has  become  the  custom  to  pack  considerable  quanti- 
ties of  fresh  meat  in  the  cargoes  of  ice  which  are  shipped  to  tropi- 
cal countries.  The  meat  with  the  ice  is  transferred  to  ice-houses, 
and  sold  as  called  for,  to  persons  who  would  otherwise  be  unable 
to  appreciate  the  diiference  between  Boston  beef  and  the  beef  of 
tropical  climates.  Ocean  steamers,  by  carrying  large  quantities 
of  ice  for  the  purpose,  are  enabled  to  supply  their  passengers,  dur- 
ing a  passage  across  the  Atlantic,  with  all  the  luxuries  in  the  way 
of  fresh  food  which  they  can  purchase  in  New  York,  and  this 
without  being  incommoded  by  cages  and  pens  of  live  stock.  Un- 
fortunately this  method  requires  too  much  space  and  too  many 
precautions  to  be  generally  available  for  the  crew  of  a  ship  of 
war,  which  may  be  obliged  to  keep  at  sea  constantly  for  months, 
and  requires  the  space  for  other  purposes. 


100  NAVAL   HYGIENE.  [  §  118. 

(118.)  Aiiotlicr  important  means  of  preserving  fresh  food  on 
board  ship  is  to  keep  the  object,  animal  or  vegetable,  alive.  Ani- 
mals, such  as  beeves,  pigs,  sheep,  and  poultry,  are  often  em- 
barked alive  with  this  view.  But  since  it  has  become  possible  to 
obtain  ice  nearly  everywhere,  the  live  stock  on  shipboard  has 
become  of  comparatively  small  importance.  It  is  easy  to  pre- 
serve beef  in  ice  much  longer  than  any  animal  of  this  kind  can 
be  kept  on  board  in  condition  tit  to  serve  the  purpose  of  food. 
Pigs  and  poultry  stand  rough  usage  better,  and  may  accommodate 
themselves  to  the  circumstances,  but  it  is  impossible  to  accommo- 
date enough  on  board  for  general  use.  They  are  generally  used 
by  the  officers  on  short  passages,  and  a  few  are  kept  for  the  pur- 
pose of  varying  occasionally  the  monotonous  diet  of  long  pas- 
sages, and  to  afford  some  savory  food  for  the  sick  and  conva- 
lescent. 

In  speaking  of  beans  as  an  article  of  the  ration,  we  have  already 
suggested  the  importance  of  preserving  them  in  such  a  way  as 
not  to  destroy  their  vitality.  This  is  effected  by  having  them 
thoroughly  dried  in  a  dry  atmosphere,  and  afterward  protecting 
them  from  moisture  and  atmospheric  vicissitudes.  If  a  bean  be 
once  broken,  and  its  vitality  thus  destroyed,  its  preservation  is 
much  more  precarious ;  and  for  this,  among  other  reasons,  we 
object  to  the  use  of  bean  flour  and  such  things.  They  undergo 
decay  more  or  less  rapidly,  no  matter  how  prepared  or  how  well 
packed.  Other  small  grains,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  etc.,  may  be 
preserved  as  well  as  beans.  Various  nuts,  as  walnuts  and  al- 
monds, are  thus  preserved  in  small  quantities,  as  a  dessert,  and 
answer  a  useful  purpose. 

Many  fresh  fruits  are  preserved  for  a  short  time  by  processes 
which  have  their  continued  vitality  in  view.  Thus  oranges  and 
lemons,  from  tropical  countries,  are  abundantly  supplied  in  all  our 
large  towns.  They  are  picked  before  they  are  quite  ripe,  with  as 
little  bruising  or  other  injury  as  possible,  wrapped  separately  in 
paper,  and  packed  in  rough  boxes.  The  fruit  thus  packed  continues 
to  ripen,  if  not  to  grow,  not  so  rapidly  or  so  well  as  on  the  tree ; 
but  by  the  time  it  reaches  us  it  is  nearly  ri})e ;  and  as  this  is  gen- 
erally so  arranged  as  tolia])pen  during  the  cold  weather  of  winter, 
the  fruit  remains  for  some  time  in  good  condition.     Apples  are 


§  119.  ]  SMALL   GARDEN.  101 

sometimes  packed  in  the  same  way  and  shipped  to  tropical  cli- 
mates. Cranberries  are  bronjjht  to  us  in  barrels  filled  with 
water,  which  prevents  them  from  being  injured  by  bruising  or 
the  evaporation  of  tlieir  juices.  While  thus  immersed  in  fresh 
clean  water,  they  keep  a  long  time  in  cool  weather,  without  ap- 
parent deterioration.  Currants,  gooseberries,  and  other  small 
fruits,  not  quite  ri])e,  placed  in  a  bottle  of  Avater  and  corked,  are 
often  kept  for  a  whole  year  in  good  condition.  Their  preserva- 
tion seems  to  depend  on  the  same  circumstances,  the  continuance 
of  their  vitality,  though  in  a  modified  state,  which  may  be  com- 
pared to  the  winter  torpor  of  the  bear  and  the  hibernation  of 
various  other  animals.  The  preservation  of  potatoes,  yams,  and 
other  tubei-s,  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  navigation.  It  is 
effected  bv  exposing  them,  with  adherent  earth,  to  a  dry  atmos- 
phere, tili  their  surface  appears  quite  dry.  They  are  afterward 
guarded  from  injury,  such  as  bruising,  as  well  as  from  wet  or  a 
too  dry  atmosphere.  They  are  best  preserved  on  shipboard 
packed  in  old  flour  barrels  with  a  little  straw,  some  holes  being 
bored  in  different  parts  of  the  barrels,  so  as  to  afford  the  proper 
degree  of  ventilation.  The  layer  of  dry  earth  attached  to  the 
potatoes,  answers  the  same  purpose  as  the  paper  in  the  case  of  the 
orano-es ;  it  guards  them  from  bruising,  and  absorbs  the  moisture 
which  may  result  from  any  little  speck  of  decay.  The  potatoes 
kept  in  this  way  are  found  particularly  advantageous  by  our 
whalers  on  the  Pacific.  Yams,  we  are  inclined  to  think,  they 
will  find  still  more  useful.  They  certainly  keep  much  better 
than  potatoes,  and  the  best  varieties,  properly  cooked,  are  not  to 
be  distinguished  from  them  in  flavor.  The  most  fastidious  con- 
noisseurs in  these  matters  may  be  easily  deceived  in  them,  if  the 
yams  be  mashed  or  cut  up  by  the  cook,  so  as  to  destroy  the  form ; 
and  those  who  imagine  the  yam  to  be  coarse  and  quite  detestable, 
are  very  easily  fooled  in  this  way.  The  people  of  Norfolk,  Vir- 
ginia, are  very  fond  of  yams  ;  but  their  yams  are  not  yams  at  all, 
but  a  variety  of  sweet  potato. 

(119.)  The  idea  of  some  sort  of  small  garden  for  fresh  vegeta- 
bles on  shipboard  has  not  been  altogether  neglected.  Thus  we 
read  of  a  tank  of  water  being  advantageously  kept  on  deck  for 
the  cultivation  of  cresses.  We  would  suggest  something  nuich 
more  productive  of  fresh  vegetables,  without  so  much  interference 


102 


NAVAL    HYGIENE. 


[§119. 


Fig.  10. 


with  the  deck  of  the  ship.  There  are  many  small  seeds — beans, 
peas,  mustard,  lettuce,  parsley,  horseradish,  turnip,  etc.,  which 
may  be  kept  on  Ijoard  for  a  very  loner  time,  and  by  means  of  a  suit- 
able a]>paratus  they  may  readily  be  made 
to  groM-,  till  they  develop  two  or  three 
leaves  to  each  seed.  They  are  thus  capa- 
ble of  furnishing,  in  abundance,  the  fresh 
material  for  a  nice  salad,  under  circum- 
stances which  would  otherwise  render  this 
quite  impossible. 

I  have  used  the  apparatus  represented 
in  the  margin  for  this  purpose.  It  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  earthen  vessels,  fitting 
on  top  of  each  other,  perforated  like  colan- 
ders, except  the  lower  one,  and  provided 
with  a  loose  lid.  Each  of  these  vessels, 
except  the  lower  one,  is  supplied  with  a 
layer  of  seeds,  previously  washed  and 
soaked ;  the  whole  is  adjusted  in  position, 
and  a  cupful  of  ^vater  poured  into  the 
upper  part,  whence  gradually  percolating 
it  moistens  the  seeds  in  the  whole  series ;  any  superfluity  of  water 
collecting  in  the  lower  jar.  Every  two  or  three  days,  the  Avater 
is  poured  from  the  bottom  into  the  top  of  the  series,  and  in  the 
course  of  a  week  or  more,  varying  with  temperature,  condition 
of  the  seed,  etc.,  the  whole  ap})aratus  is  found  to  be  packed  full 
of  tender  sprouts. 


Salad  Garden. 


CHAPTER   XY 


ZOOLOGY. 

(120.)  Septp]MBER  10th. — We  are  approaching  the  coast  of 
Mexico,  about  to  enter  a  foreign  port  where  nature  furnishes 
many  articles  useful  for  food  with  which  we  are  unacquainted. 
Nearly  everything  except  the  domestic  animals  l)eing  new  to  us, 
we  may  advantageously  recall  some  of  our  zoological  and  botan- 
ical studies,  for  the  purpose  of  a  better  appreciation  of  them.  It 
is  a  good  and  safe  rule  to  appro])riate  as  food  whatever  we  find 
the  natives  of  a  country  to  use  habitually  and  safely. 

CAENIVORAIS^TS. 

(121.)  The  flesh-eating  animals,  as  a  rule,  are  not  good  for 
food.  We  are  quite  unable  to  say  why  this  should  be  so ;  but, 
like  many  other  facts  of  nature,  we  are  obliged  to  receive  it  as  a 
fact — a  conclusion  of  universal  experience.  Cats  and  other  flesh- 
eating  animals,  even  on  the  point  of  starvation,  if  offered  flesh  of 
this  kind,  will  generally  smell  it  and  walk  away  in  disgust. 
Though  food  of  this  kind  is  doubtless  unwholesome,  it  is  not 
directly  poisonous,  and  might  be  used  in  small  quantities  afi  a  re- 
source against  starvation.  The  repulsive  flavor  of  the  flesh  of 
these  animals  seems  due  to  the  nature  of  their  food,  and  under 
peculiar  circumstances  their  flesh  is  esteemed  as  meat. 

(122.)  The  bear,  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  when  nuts  are  abun- 
dant in  the  forest,  ceases  to  be  carnivorous ;  feeding  and  becoming 
fat  on  acorns,  chestnuts,  etc.  He  is  then  hunted  for  his  flesh 
and  fat,  which  form  a  principal  winter  supply  of  our  frontier 
settlements,  and  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  borders  of  forests  nearly 
everywhere. — ( Godman.) 

(123.)  The  dog. — A  variety  of  domestic  dog,  on  some  of  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific,  before  the  general  introduction  of  pigs,  was 
raised  for  use   as  food,   and    fatted   exclusively   on  vegetables. 


104  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  127. 

Europeans,  avIio  have  oeeasionally  tasted  the  flesh  of  these  dogs 
at  feasts,  concur  in  the  statement  that  this  kind  of  meat  is  not 
distinguishable  by  the  flavor  from  pork. 

(124.)  The  northern  lynx  {Frlis  bar ealis.)—'' The  flesh  of  this 
lynx  is  considered  good  food  l)y  the  hunters,  being  fat,  white, 
and  flavored  like  the  hare,  on  which  it  principally  feeds." — 
(Go(hna)i.) 

(125.)  The  other  orders  of  animals,  nearly  allied  to  the  carniv- 
orants  by  their  predaceous  habits,  living  principally  on  insects 
and  small  animals,  are  almost  universally  rejected  as  food,  partly, 
no  doubt,  on  account  of  their  generally  insignificant  size.  They 
are  capable  of  conversion  into  food  in  cases  of  emergency. 

(126.)  The  amphibious  carnivorants,  the  seal  and  the  valrus, 
are  regarded  as  the  very  best  of  meat  by  the  inhaliitants  of  the 
countries  where  they  abound  ;  though,  with  our  habits,  and  in 
our  climate,  such  food  would  probably  be  absolutely  disgusting. 
The  Arctic  regions  would  perhaps  be  quite  uninhabitable  l)y  man 
Avithout  the  flesh,  the  fat,  and  the  hides  of  these  creatures.  The 
men  of  Dr.  Kane's  party,  with  all  the  appliances  which  they 
were  able  to  carry  from  New  York,  found  walrus  flesh  their  only 
efiectual  relief  from  scorbutus — sea-scurvy. 

PACHYDERMS   AND    RUMINANTS. 

(127.)  The  animals  of  these  two  orders,  living  almost  exclu- 
sively on  grass  and  seeds,  supply  the  great  bulk  of  animal  food 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  world.  The  flesh  of  any  and  all  of 
them  forms  good,  wholesome  food,  generally  esteemed ;  differing 
much  in  delicacy  of  flav^or,  according  to  species,  age,  sex,  climate, 
soil,  food,  etc.  The  flesh  of  the  hog  rivals  that  of  the  ox  in 
general  importance,  though  much  less  esteemed  by  us.  Some  of 
the  Asiatics  who  use  the  ox  for  agricultural  labor,  never  think  of 
eating  his  flesh,  and  regard  beef  with  the  same  sort  of  repugnance 
as  with  us  attaches  to  horseflesh ;  while  they  use  pork  to  the 
exclusion  of  nearly  all  other  animal  food.  The  domestic  hog, 
not  being  very  fastidious  in  his  diet,  is  liable  to  become  unfit  for 
food  if  improperly  fed.  Many  persons  among  us,  besides  a  very 
extensive  religious  sect,  decline  the  use  of  pork  altogether,  prob- 
ably for  tiiis  reason.  This,  as  well  as  the  Asiatic  prejudice  against 


§  128.  ]  BEEF.  105 

beef,  and  our  own  against  the  use  of  horseflesh,  may  be  very 
unreasonable  and  absurd ;  but  wc  all  have  such  i)reju(li('es,  and 
perhaps  would  not  be  benefited  by  being  reasoned  out  of  them. 
In  case  of  the  real  want  of  animal  food  we  shoidd  not  hesitate  to 
recommend  the  slaughter  of  horse,  if  one  in  suitable  condition  be 
obtainable. 

"Three  disgusting  and  dangerous  diseases  in  man  owe  their 
origin  to  the  ingestion  of  the  flesh  of  the  pig,— tapeworm,  hydat- 
ids, and  trichinosis.  Professor  Leidy,  of  Philadelphia,  was,  I 
believe,  the  first  who  observed  the  Trichina  spiralis  in  the  pig, 
the  meat  of  which  animal  has  always  been,  so  far  as  we  know, 
the  cause  of  tliis  dangerous  disease, — trichinosis.  It  ought  always 
to  be  examined  before  being  used  as  food,  and  in  case  it  i)resents 
a  suspicious  appearance,  it  ought  to  be  subjected  to  a  microscopic 
examination.  A  thorough  boiling  or  roasting,  as  also  intense 
salting  and  smoking,  will  kill  the  trichina,  though  imperfect 
preparation  by  these  methods  will  not." — {Keller.) 

(128.)  iJee/is  with  us  the  most  esteemed  of  all  animal  food. 
But  in  tropical  countries  we  have  always  found  this  meat  tough 
and  tasteless,  and  not  so  good  as  mutton,  or  even  goatflesh.  The 
flesh  and  milk  of  these  animals  are  liable  to  become  poisonous 
by  their  feeding  on  poisonous  weeds.  Thus  the  cow  and  the  deer 
have  been  known  to  feed  on  the  Bhus  toxicodendron,  poison  oak, 
their  flesh  and  milk  becoming  poisonous,  so  as  to  give  rise  to  a 
curious  epidemic  of  the  Western  States,  known  by  the  name  of 
staggers  or  milk  sickness. — [Chase.) 

The  goat,  likewise,  when  nearly  starved,  feeding  on  rubbish 
lots  about  our  cities,  has  been  known  to  eat  the  Stramonium, 
Jamestown  weed,  which  generally  grows  in  such  places.  The 
flesh  and  milk  of  the  animal,  in  these  cases,  have  in  some  degree 
the  poisonous  properties  of  the  weed. 

The  flesh  of  diseased  animals  is  generally  poisonous.  The  fol- 
lowing cases,  from  the  London  Lancet,  February,  1864,  are  to 
the  point,  and  show  the  danger  of  slaughtering  such  animals : 

"  On  tlie  22d  of  October,  1863,  a  bull  was  taken  ill  on  a  farm  and  in  a  county 
which  I  decline  to  name.  My  reasons  for  not  mentioning  the  place  are,  that 
every  effort  has  been  made  to  keep  the  secret,  as  in  a  host  of  similar  cases,  and 
it  will  serve  no  purpose  whatever  to  expose  those  who,  in  ignorance,  and  in 
consequence  of  the  lax  state  of  the  laws  on  the  subject,  acted  as  their  neighbors 


106  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §   129. 

would  have  done.  A  laborer  on  the  farm,  who  had  formerly  been  a  butcher, 
volunteered  to  slaughter  the  sick  bull,  that  its  carcass  might  be  saved  for  the 
butcher's  stall.  Unfortunately,  the  poor  man  had  previously  injured  his  liand 
with  a  spade.  It  was  said  tiiatthe  bull  was  dying  from  pleuro-pneumonia,  but 
others  declare  that  the  disease  was  of  too  rapid  a  type  to  be  the  very  prevalent 
hnig  complaint.  Certain  it  is  that  four  pigs  died  after  eating  a  part  of  the  vis- 
cera of  the  bull,  and  two  dogs  nearly  lost  tlieir  lives  in  the  same  way.  The 
bull  was  disposed  of  to  a  butcher  for  the  .sum  of  £5,  and  after  this,  not  only 
was  it  seen  that  tlie  pigs  and  dogs  had  been  injured  by  eating  the  flesh,  but  the 
laborer  suffered  inten!,'e  pain  in  his  hand,  was  seized  with  severe  sj-mptoms,  and 
died  on  the  fourth  day  after  dressing  the  bull. 

"  Many  readei-s  of  the  Lancet  may  suppose  that  this  is  a  solitary  case,  or  at  all 

events  a  rare  one To  my  own  knowledge,  four  otlier  men  have  died, 

presenting  symptoms  such  as  the  above,  under  similar  circumstances,  in  the 
same  county,  during  the  last  four  years.  Another  man,  a  Initcher,  nearly  lost 
his  life,  and  the  surgeon  who  attended  him  asked  him  what  had  been  done 
with  the  diseased  cattle  he  had  dressed.  This  question  was  asked,  as  the  sur- 
geon feared  that  the  carcasses  were  at  that  time  being  cut  up  in  the  town  where 
they  had  been  slaughtered  ;  but  he  was  somewhat  consoled  by  the  usual  replv, 
'  They  had  been  sent  to  London.'  " 

"A  landed  proprietor  wrote  me  concerning  an  instance  of  serious  illness  in 
East  Lothian.  An  animal  was  slaughtered  and  sent  either  to  Edinburgh  or 
London.  After  the  carcass  had  been  dispatched  the  pigs  were  taken  ill,  and 
several  died ;  they  had  eaten  of  the  animal's  entrails.  The  man  who  dressed 
the  bullock  nearly  lost  his  life,  and  only  recovered  after  nearly  losing  liis  eye- 
sight.    His  vision  has  only  been  restored  in  one  eye. 

"  In  the  Edinburgh  slaughter-houses  similar  accidents  have  been  witnessed, 
though  every  effort  is  made  to  conceal  the  truth.  During  the  outbreak  of  ma- 
lignant anthrax  in  Lincolnshire  last  autumn,  a  shepherd  scratched  his  arm 
while  dressing  a  sheep,  and  he  very  nearly  lost  his  life. 

ir  *  *  ***** 

"My  opinion,  based  on  a  careful  consideration  of  the  wliole  subject,  is,  that 
the  public  health  is  materially  affected  by  the  wholesale  slaughter  of  diseased 
animals  as  human  food.  Several  years  ago  I  declared  that  it  was  imjiossible 
that  human  beings  were  not  fre<|uently  injured  by  eating  the  flesh  of  cattle  that 
had  died  of  splenic  apoplexy  in  the  country  ;  and  the  reason  why  cases  have 
not  been  published,  is  that  the  carcasses  have  been  sent  to  large  cities,  where 
they  would  not  be  distinguished  from  the  carcasses  of  perfectly  healthy  animals,  and 
the  evil  results  of  eating  the  poisonous  flesh  could  not  be  distinguished  from 
any  ordinary  case  of  dysentery  or  typhus." — {Gamyee.) 

(1 29.)  It  would  appetir  that  the  flesh  of  iuiinials  is  cle.sirablc 
for  food  nearly  in  proportion  as  they  are  exclusively  fed  on  vege- 
tjibles.  Thus  the  ruminants,  the  ox,  the  sheep  and  deer,  which 
eat  nothing  but  vegetables  and  a  few  grasshoppers  and  s})iders  to 
season  tlunr  diet,  are  universally  esteemed  as  food  ;  or,  if  there  is 
an  exception,  it  is  to  be  accountal  for  bv  the  animal  being  es- 


§  131.  ]  BIRDS.  107 

teemed  as  a  laborer  and  companion.  And  tlio  pachydcrnis,  the 
hog;,  elephant,  camel,  and  horse,  naturally  usinj^  similar  diet,  are 
similarly  esteemed.  The  rodents,  likewise,  the  hare,  squirrel, 
muskrat,  etc.,  such  of  them  as  are  taken  wild  in  the  fields  and 
forests,  are  often  used  as  food.  But  there  are  animals  of  this 
class  which  frequent  human  habitations,  very  indifferent  what 
they  eat,  and  therefore  very  disgusting.  Under  peculiar  circum- 
stances perhaps  even  these  animals  might  be  eaten.  The  flesh  of 
animals  varies  much  in  flavor  according  to  the  quality  of  their 
food,  and  acquires  therefrom  much  of  its  peculiar  flavor  and 
aroma. 

CETACEANS. 

(130.)  Most  of  the  cetaceous  animals — whales,  porpoises,  etc., 
— feeding  on  fish,  are  rejected  as  food.  They  are,  however,  ad- 
vantageonslv  used  sometimes  on  long  voyages.  But  the  sirenians, 
herbivorous  cetaceans, — siren,  lamantin,  dugong,  and  sea-cow — 
feeding  exclusively  on  sea-plants,  are  esteemed  as  most  exquisite 
meat,  and  being  nearly  enough  allied  to  fish  to  be  eaten  on 
fast  days,  they  are  pursued  with  a  degree  of  active  enterprise 
which  threatens  their  entire  extinction. 


BIRDS. 

(131.)  The  raj)acious  birds,  feeding  almost  exclusively  on  the 
flesh  of  other  animals,  are  nearly  unfit  for  food,  and  are  univer- 
sally rejected  ;  in  these  respects  resembling  the  carnivorous  mam- 
mals. Their  flesh  is  likewise  greatly  modified  by  the  nature  of 
their  food.  The  entire  body  of  the  vulture  has  in  a  strong  de- 
gree the  smell  and  doubtless  the  taste  of  the  putrid  flesh  on  which 
it  feeds.  Some  hawks  are  very  nice  about  their  food,  living 
mostly  on  small  birds,  and  we  have  known  the  flesh  of  such 
haAvks,  when  fat  and  tender,  to  be  eaten,  and  its  flavor  compared 
to  that  of  the  chickens  on  which  they  were  supposed  to  have  fed. 
But  this  is  the  rare  exception. 

The  nearly  allied  orders,  pa.s.ser/ije.s  and  scanmres,  feeding  to 
some  extent  on  animal  food,  principally  insects  Avith  their  grubs 
and  effffs,  are  of  small  account  as  food.  But  their  food,  beintr 
less   exclusively  of  the   animal   kind,  and  of  lower  animal  or- 


108  NAVAL   HYGIENE.  [  §  134. 

ganisiiis,  they  are  niiflonbtedly  l)etter  meat.  Some  of  them  fat- 
ten on  partieular  kuids  of  gruh.s,  as  the  woodcock,  and  withal 
being  difficult  to  obtain  in  quantities,  are  esteemed  as  great  deli- 
cacies. The  r()])in  [TurfJi(f<  m!f/raforius),  in  the  autumn,  feeding 
partly  on  berries,  and  migrating  in  large  flocks,  is  greatly  perse- 
cuted by  idle  boys,  who  seem  delighted  to  eat  almost  any  small 
bird  which  they  can  manage  to  shoot.  AVith  these  insignificant 
exceptions,  these  birds  are  not  used  for-  food,  but  in  case  of  great 
scarcity  we  should  not  hesitate  to  recommend  almost  any  of 
them. 

(132.)  Poultry. — The  most  extensive  order  of  birds,  the 
gaUinaceans,  subsist  largely  on  vegetable  seeds  and  fruits,  espe- 
cially during  the  autumn  and  early  winter ;  and  their  flesh  sup- 
plies a  large  amount  of  excellent  meat.  The  domestic  foiol  is 
found  throughout  the  habitable  globe,  civilized  and  savage. 
Even  they  who  from  religious  feeling  abstain  from  killing  ani- 
mals for  their  flesh,  raise  and  keep  these  birds,  in  large  numbers, 
for  their  eggs.  The  turkey  of  America  was  found  by  the  early 
settlers  in  a  state  of  domestication  among  the  Indians.  This  mag- 
nificent l)ird  has  been  transferred  to  nearly  all  parts  of  the  civi- 
lized world ;  but  it  is  not  so  prolific  as  the  common  domestic po«/f/-i/, 
and  as  yet  not  very  abundant  beyond  the  limits  of  the  United 
States.  There  are  already  several  distinctly  marked  varieties  of 
this  bird  as  the  consequences  of  its  domestication. 

(133.)  The  flesh  of  birds,  as  well  as  of  mammals,  is  liable  to 
become  poisonsous.  From  disease,  no  doubt,  it  may  become  poi- 
sonous, but  of  this  we  are  unable  to  mention  an  instance.  The 
pheasant,  partridge-pheasant  of  Audubon,  has  occasionally  been 
found  poisonous.  This  has  only  been  noticed  in  the  winter  sea- 
son, with  the  earth  generally  covered  with  snow,  so  that  the  bird 
has  been  unable  to  get  at  his  usual  food.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, he  eats  both  the  leaves  and  the  berries  of  the  Kalmkt, 
sheep-] aurol.  The  flesh  of  any  of  the  gallinaceous  birds  might 
possibly  become  poisonous  under  such  influences. 

(134.)  Ducks. — The  water  birds,  waders  and  swimmers,  vary 
much  in  their  forms,  habits,  and  food.  Some  of  them,  as  the 
rails,  snipes,  and  plovers,  living  principally  on  earthworms, 
wliich  do  not  impart  any  unpleasant  flavor,  are  very  delicate  food 
in  their  season.     But  thev  are  so  small  and  scarce  as  to  be  of 


§  136.  ]  SEA-BIRDS.  109 

little  account.  Most  .species  of  dacks  and  gecHC  prefer  grass  and 
seeds  to  any  other  food,  and  when  they  are  in  ji'ood  condition, 
feedino'  on  their  favorite  food,  tlieir  Hcsli  is  mucli  esteemed. 
Several  species  have  been  domesticated  and  they  are  everywhere 
found  in  the  markets.  The  mnvas-baoh  duck  [FuJifjula  valis- 
neria),  is  justly  considered  most  exquisite  meat.  Its  favorite  food 
is  the  root  of  the  Valisneria  sjjiralis,  a  fresh-water  grass,  which 
it  obtains  by  diving.  The  exquisite  flavor  of  the  bird  is,  no 
doubt,  due  to  this  grass,  as  when  taken  in  other  situations  and 
out  of  season  the  meat  is  tough,  fishy,  and  worthless.  The  red- 
head {Fuligula  erythroccphain),  sometimes  accompanies  the  canvas- 
back,  helping  to  eat  the  valisneria  after  he  has  pulled  it.  In  this 
case,  it  is  not  easy  to  distinguish  between  the  flavor  of  the  two 
sjiecies.  The  ducks  generally,  if  unable  to  get  their  favorite 
food,  readily  take  to  insects,  worms,  and  small  fish  about  the 
margins  of  streams ;  in  which  case  their  flesh  is  scarcely  fit  to  be 
eaten,  excei)t  by  some  unfortunate  who  may  be  as  nearly  starved 
as  the  poor  ducks  themselves. 

(135.)  The  question  has  often  been  presented,  in  the  course  of 
long  voyages,  of  the  propriety  of  using  various  species  of  sea- 
birds  for  food.  This  question  may  readily  be  answered,  in  any 
special  case,  by  reference  to  the  following  rule  :  All  birds  and 
mammals  are  wholesome  for  meat,  except  such  as  by  their  tough- 
ness defy  the  powers  of  mastication  and  digestion,  and  such  as  by 
their  disgusting  flavor  or  smell  eftectually  repel  the  hungry.  The 
flesh  of  the  adult  males,  as  a  general  rule,  possesses  more  of  these 
repulsive  properties  than  the  young  and  the  females.  Sea-birds 
feed  almost  exclusively  on  fish,  and  their  flesh  has  a  repulsive 
fishy  flavor.  By  removing,  with  the  skin,  the  layers  of  fat  with 
which  the  bodies  of  these  birds  are  loaded,  and  parboiling,  this 
disgusting  flavor  may  be  in  some  degree  removed.  The  albatross 
has  been  advantageously  used  (La  Perouse),  and  likewise  the 
penguin.     (Dumont  d'Urville). 

(136.)  The  eggs  of  all  these  birds  seem  to  be  edible;  varying 
much  in  delicacy  of  flavor,  but  having  none  of  the  fishy  flavor 
which  sometimes  belongs  to  their  flesh.  Some  markets  are  regu- 
larly supplied,  from  neighboring  islands,  with  the  eggs  of  sea- 
birds,  which  are  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  the  eggs  of 
domestic  fowls.     The  collectors  are  careful  to  procure  fresh  eggs 


110  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  139. 

of  about  the  riglit  size,  with  perfect  indifference  as  to  tlie  species 
of  bird  which  may  have  deposited  them.  A  supply  of  fresh 
eggs,  from  a  bird  island,  might  frequently  be  of  immense  advan- 
tage to  the  crew  of  a  ship. 

REPTILIANS. 

(137.)  AYe  have  heretofore  treated  of  animals  whose  flesh  va- 
ries much  in  quality  according  to  their  species,  age,  sex,  and  con- 
dition ;  but  there  is  not  one  of  them  which  can  be  considered  in 
any  degree  poisonous.  As  we  descend  in  the  scale  of  created 
beings,  however,  we  find  species  which  are  more  or  less  poisonous  ; 
and  the  further  we  descend  in  the  scale,  the  greater  the  proportion 
of  species  which  cannot  be  safely  eaten. 

(138.)  The  sea-turtles,  which  are  by  far  the  most  important 
animals  of  this  class,  include  some  poisonous,  or  at  least  unwhole- 
some species.  The  hawks-bill  [Chelonia  imbncata),  the  turtle 
which  furnishes  the  tortoise-shell  of  commerce,  is  one  of  the  poi- 
sonous species.  It  has  caused  dizziness,  nausea,  vomiting,  and 
diarrhoea,  with  great  prostration.  But  we  are  not  aware  that  it 
has  actually  caused  death. — [Dampicr.)  The  loggerhead  ( Chelonia 
caretta)  is  the  largest  of  these  animals,  sometimes  weighing  one 
thousand  pounds.  It  is  worthless,  on  account  of  its  repulsive 
odor ;  the  eggs  even  have  a  disagreeable  musky  smell.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  the  leathery  turtle  [Sphargis  coreacea),  which  is  an 
enormous  creature,  nearly  as  large  as  the  loggerhead. 

(139.)  The  green  turtle  [Chelonia  riiidas),  the  most  abundant  of 
all,  is  most  excellent  eating.  In  S(ime  seaports  it  is  so  abundant 
as  to  be  constantly  in  the  market  like  beef.  At  the  Island  of 
Ascension,  shi})s  regularly  receive  this  turtle  in  lieu  of  beef. 
They  are  secured  by  turning  them  on  their  backs  when  they  come 
in  to  deposit  their  eggs  ;  and  afterwards  they  are  kept  in  a  pen, 
sufficiently  large  to  inclose  a  pool  of  sea-water  for  their  use.  By 
this  arrangement  they  are  supplied  at  all  seasons.  This  is  very 
advantageous,  as  a  ship  may  embark  a  number  of  turtles,  and 
keep  them  alive  on  board,  months  if  necessary,  till  actually 
needed ;  whereas  beef  cannot  be  kept  in  a  good  condition  on 
board  but  a  f(nv  days.  There  are,  doubtless,  other  species  of  sea- 
turtle  which  are  good,  and  at  various  ports  we  chance  to  visit,  we 


§  142.  ]  ,  REPTILIANS.  Ill 

iimv  safelv  adopt  the  experience  and  opinions  of  the  natives  in 
refereni'e  to  their  <:;ood  or  bad  (pialities. 

(140.)  The  fresh-water  ehelonians,  tcrrapiuAi,  arc  generally 
nnieh  esteemed,  and  arc  excellent  food.  The  snappmrj-turtle 
{Chelonki  sopenfina),  is  much  liked  by  some,  though  the  old  ones 
are  sometimes  rather  musky.  But  the  Emys  palustris,  Emy.s  ter- 
rapin, Emys  rubriventris,  and  probably  twenty  more,  the  most 
common  species,  are  universally  considered  among  the  best  of 
meats.  The  species  which  are  not  good  are  generally  called  mud 
turtles,  and  have  a  disgusting  musky  flavor. 

(141.)  There  is  one  species  of  land  tortoise,  of  great  import- 
ance to  navigators  on  the  Paciiic,  the  GaU'qxigos  turtle  {Testudo 
planiceps).  This  animal  is  found  only  on  a  small  group  of  islands 
nearly  under  the  equator.  It  thrives  perfectly  on  shipboard, 
apparently  requiring  neither  food  nor  water.  A  large  one  can 
carry  a  man  on  his  back,  and  gives  about  Uvo  hundred  pounds 
of  meat,  which  makes  a  most  excellent  gelatinous  soup.  It  is 
said  that  settlers  there  have  lately  introduced  (tattle,  and  that  the 
tortoises  are  becoming  scarce  on  account  of  the  tramping  down  of 
their  nests  and  consequent  destruction  of  the  eggs.  If  tliis  be 
so,  we  hope  that  the  mistake  will  be  promptly  connected  by  de- 
stroying the  cattle ;  for  the  tortoise  being  capable  of  long  preser- 
vation, is  infinitely  more  valuable  than  beef  as  a  supply  for  ships. 
There  is  a  still  larger  land  tortoise,  the  Testudo  indica,  found  in 
Asia,  but  it  is  so  rare  that  we  do  not  know  much  about  it, 

(142.)  The  {guana  of  tropical  America  feeds  mostly  on  fruits 
and  vegetables,  and  is  considered  by  the  Indians  as  a  delicious 
morsel.  Of  the  rest  of  the  reptiles,  crocodiles,  lizards,  snakes, 
salamanders,  etc.,  many  are  eaten  by  the  inhabitants  of  various 
countries.  But  the  poisonous  character  of  somCj,  with  their  re- 
pulsive forms  and  habits,  and  the  fact  that  they  are  only  pro- 
curable when  things  more  to  our  liking  may  be  had,  renders  it 
unnecessary  for  us  to  think  of  them  as  food. 

Many  of  these  reptiles  are  to  be  avoided  on  account  of  the 
poison  infused  into  tlieir  bite.  Bibron^s  antidote,  composed  of 
alcohol,  bromine,  and  iodine,  saves  life  in  cases  of  wounds  from 
these  animals ;  and  we  should  freely  use,  internally  and  exter- 
nally, either  of  these  substances,  which  first  comes  to  hand. 
There  are  many  ugly-looking  sea-serpents  floating  on  the  surface 


112  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  143. 

of  the  China  Sea.  They  are  often  caught  by  sailors  in  their 
draw  buckets.  They  are  said  to  be  exceedingly  venomous,  and 
it  is  well  to  be  shy  of  them ;  and  if  any  accident  should  happen 
from  them,  it  should  be  thoroughly  published  in  the  papers  of  the 
principal  seaports,  especially  of  China  and  India,  for  our  sailors 
are  somewhat  incredulous  about  the  venomous  properties  of  these 
animals. 

FISH. 

(143.)  A  very  large  proportion  of  all  created  beings  are  fish. 
When  we  reflect  that  three-fourths  of  the  earth's  surfoce  is  cov- 
ered by  water,  everywhere  inhabited  by  them ;  each  species 
adapted  to  some  particular  location — the  river,  the  brook,  the 
lake,  the  bay,  and  the  ocean ;  the  surface,  the  shoal,  and  the  deep 
water ;  the  sand-bank,  the  rocky  reef,  and  the  muddy  bottom — 
we  begin  to  comprehend  something  of  this  immensity.  This 
vast  number,  probably  millions  of  millions  of  objects,  of  thou- 
sands of  species,  are  alike  in  so  many  respects  that  we  need  not 
say  much  about  them  except  in  common.  They  are  all  predace- 
ous,  the  stronger  feeding  on  the  weaker  throughout  the  whole 
class;  but  varying  somewhat  in  the  degree  of  their  voracity. 
They  all  have  a  peculiar  flavor,  which  is  nearly  the  same  in  all 
of  them,  some  being  more  delicate  in  flavor  than  others,  and 
some  so  strong:  as  to  be  considered  unfit  for  use.  It  is  curious 
that  this  fishy  taste,  so  generally  liked  where  it  belongs,  is  exceed- 
ingly disgusting  when  by  careless  cookery  it  is  imparted  to  other 
meat.  Fish,  though  less  substantial  than  most  other  meat,  is  an 
invaluable  resource  in  varying  the  food,  not  only  of  sailors  but 
of  men  everywhere. 

The  quality  of  fish  seems  to  vary  more  with  the  condition  of 
individual  animals  than  with  the  species.  Thus  almost  any  fish 
is  good  in  its  best  condition,  when  cooked  and  eaten  soon  after 
its  removal  from  the  water ;  and  all  of  them,  even  the  best,  de- 
teriorate very  rapidly  if  kept  a  short  time,  and  become  even  poi- 
sonous. This  deterioration  is  progressive,  and  the  shorter  the 
interval  of  time  between  the  water  and  the  gridiron  the  better. 
In  warm  climates  this  deterioration  is  sometimes  so  rapid  that  fish 
is  quite  unfit  for  use,  unless  cooked  within  an  hour  or  two  after 
it  is  caught.     For  a  time  after  depositing  their  spawn  flsh  are 


§  144.  ]  FISH   POISON.  113 

unfit  for  use,  disgusting;  in  flavor,  and  unwliolosome  if  not  poi- 
sonous. This  is  the  case  with  sahnon,  shad,  herring,  and  all 
other  fish  which  it  has  been  ])ossil)le  to  observe  in  this  respect, 
and  the  inference  seems  reasonable  that  the  rule  is  universal. 
This  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  same  kind  of  fish,  at  the  same 
place,  is  sometimes  good  during  one  week  and  poisonous  the  next. 
Some  species  of  fish  are,  perhaps,  always  poisonous,  independently 
of  any  peculiarity  of  condition. 

(144.)  Many  accidents  occur  from  fish-poisoning.  One  of  our 
ships  approaching  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  the  crew,  in  a  calm, 
caught  a  great  number  of  Spanish  mackerel  (Scomber  colia.^),  a 
much-esteemed  and  very  common  European  fish  ;  and  some  thirty 
of  the  crew  were  poisoned,  though  none  fatally,  before  the  fish 
was  suspected. — {Homer.) 

During  the  first  Japan  expedition,  our  ships  at  Simoda  were 
supplied  with  a  very  excellent  small  fish,  the  Clupea  thryssa, 
which  abounds  there.  After  a  week  or  so  it  was  observed  that 
the  fish  were  not  so  good  as  usual,  and  several  persons  who  ate 
them  were  attacked  with  fish-poisoning. 

At  Cape  Town,  South  Africa,  the  authorities  warn  strangers 
against  a  poisonous  fish,  Tetrodon  capensis,  which  abounds  there. 
"  A  fatal  accident  from  this  fish  occurred  recently  on  board  a 
Dutch  ship  at  St.  Simon's  Bay.  Her  Britannic  Majesty's  ship 
Winchester  being  near,  her  surgeon,  Mr.  Jameson,  was  called  to 
assist  the  sufferers.  He  found  that  the  boatswain's  mate  and 
purser's  steward  had  been  suddenly  taken  ill  after  eating  part  of 
a  well-known  deleterious  fish  common  there,  called  toad-fish,  or 
bladder-fish,  the  Tetrodon.  They  had  been  warned  that  the  fish 
was  poisonous,  but  were  resolved  to  try  the  experiment,  the  boat- 
swain declaring  that  the  liver  was  not  poisonous,  but  a  great 
delicacy.  They  had  partaken  of  dinner  at  12  o'clock;  imme- 
diately afterward  they  partook  of  the  fish,  and  scarcely  ten  min- 
utes had  elapsed  when  the  boatswain  became  so  ill  that  he  was 
unable  to  raise  himself  without  the  greatest  difficulty ;  his  face 
was  flushed,  his  eyes  glistened,  pupils  ratiier  contracted,  his  mouth 
was  open,  lips  livid,  somewhat  blue ;  his  forehead  covered  with 
perspiration;  the  pulse  weak,  quick,  and  intermittent.  The 
patient  w^as  extremely  uneasy  and  in  great  distress,  but  still  con- 
scious ;  he  complained  of  pain  from   constriction  of  the  throat, 


114  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  145. 

and  appeared  inclined  to  vomit.  His  state  soon  assumed  a  para- 
lytic- form  ;  his  eyes  became  fixed  in  one  direction ;  his  breathing 
■was  difficult,  and  acconi})anied  with  dilatation  of  the  nostrils ; 
his  face  was  pale  and  covered  with  cold  perspiration ;  his  lips 
livid,  and  in  scarcely  seventeen  minutes  after  partaking  of  the 
fish  he  was  dead.  The  symptoms  of  the  purser's  steward  were 
similar.  He  died  within  twenty  minutes  after  partaking  of  the  fish. 
The  quantity  eaten  by  the  two  men  was  the  liver  of  one  fish,  which 
might  have  weighed  four  drachms."   [15.55  grams.] — {Jameson.) 

A  species  of  Sparus,  porgie,  has  been  noticed  as  poisonous  at 
the  Hawaiian  Islands.  Several  species  of  Clupea,  herring,  have 
been  observed  to  be  poisonous  :  Clupea  thn/ssa,  of  the  China  Sea 
and  Indian  Ocean;  Clupea  tropica,  of  the  AVest  Indies;  and 
Clupea  meletta,  of  the  Pacific ;  so  that  every  small  herring  or 
sardine-like  fish  should  be  suspected,  in  fact  avoided,  till  positive 
information  is  gained  of  its  properties.  There  is  a  large  species 
of  perch  in  the  West  India  waters  {^phyrcena  hecuna),  which  has 
often  been  the  occasion  of  accidental  poisoning. 

(145.)  Though  it  has  not  been  certainly  determined  that  any 
species  of  fish  is  always  or  essentially  poisonous,  yet  accidents 
have  so  frequently  occurred  with  some  of  them,  that  they  should 
always  be  rejected.  The  genera  D'wdon  and  Tetrodon — sea- 
porcupine,  toad-fish,  blower,  puffer,  etc. — being  puffed  up  with 
air  and  covered  with  spines,  are  generally,  if  not  always,  poison- 
ous, and  their  appearance  one  would  think  enough  to  excite  dis- 
gust at  the  mere  idea  of  eating  them. 

The  only  available  means  of  testing  the  poisonous  properties  of 
fish  is  to  cause  a  small  animal,  as  a  cat,  to  eat  some  of  it.  Its 
poor  flavor  may  excite  suspicion. 

The  following  list  comprises  all  the  fish  which  have  proved 
iwisonous  of  which  I  have  l>een  able  to  find  an  account : 

Scomber  ceruleus,  Spanish  mackerel.  Tdrodon  ocellatus,  spotted  blower. 

Scomber  maximus,  king-fish.  Tdrodon  scelerntus,  puffer. 

Scomber  thynnus,  bonito.  Tetrodon  pennatii,  Pennant's  toad-tish. 

Clupea  meletta,  tropic  sardine.  Perca  major,  baracuta. 

Clupea  thryssa,  yellow-bill  sprat.  Perca  venenata,  rock-fish. 

Clupea  tropica,  tropic  herring.  Perca  venenosa,  grooi)er. 

Coracinus  fu»cus,  gray  snapper.  Sphyro'nn  pecuna,  Jamaica  perch. 

Coracinus  minor,  small  snapper.  Balisfes  monoccrm,  old  wife. 

Coryphona  splendens,  sailor's  dolphin.  Sparus  chrysops,  gilt-head. 

Tetrodon  capemis,  cape  toad-fish.  Sparus  pagrus,  porgie. 

MurerM  minor,  conger  eel. 


§  148.  ]  MOLLUSKS.  115 


MOLLUSKS. 


(14().)  This  division  of  animals  supplies  comparatively  very 
little  food.  Many  species  of  squids  form  the  principal  food  of 
whales,  and,  therefore,  probably  are  not  poisonous.  Some  of 
them  are  eaten  by  people  where  they  abound,  and  are  considered 
good  meat,  which  has  been  compared  in  flavor  to  the  claw  of  the 
lobster.  At  Simoda,  Japan,  during  the  first  expedition,  the 
common  calamar}'  [LoUgo  vulgaris)  was  noticed  in  considerable 
quantities,  preserved  by  slightly  salting  and  drying  it.  When 
broiled  and  eaten  hot,  the  flavor  was  good. 

But  most  of  the  mollusks  are  to  be  avoided  rather  than  sousfht 
after.  There  is  so  little  that  is  appetizing  in  the  appearance  of 
most  of  them,  that  comparatively  few  experiments  have  been 
made  with  a  view  to  their  conversion  into  food  ;  so  that  here  is  a 
large  field  which  may  be  cultivated  when  the  human  race  in- 
creases so  as  to  make  the  use  of  such  food  necessary.  AVe  do  not 
know  whether  any  of  them  are  essentially  poisonous,  but  it  is 
believed  that  any  and  all  of  them  are  very  liable  to  become  so 
under  very  ordinary  circumstances,  as  happens  with  fish. 

(147.)  Snails,  which  are  eaten  by  some  people,  feed  on  plants 
and  have  appeared  to  be  poisonous  when  collected  from  poison- 
ous plants.  The  caution  which  this  fact  suggests  cannot  prob- 
ably be  of  much  value  to  any  American. 

(148.)  The  acephala,  including  oysters,  clams,  date-fish  (Pho- 
las),  muscles,  and  cockles,  are  the  most  valuable  of  the  mollusks. 
Nearly  all  of  us  appreciate  the  good  varieties  of  the  oyster  in  its 
season.  The  others  are  less  savory,  and  some  of  them  pretty 
tough ;  but  good  cooking  and  seasoning  make  good  soup  and 
other  good  dishes  of  almost  any  of  them,  if  the  animal  itself  be 
in  good  condition. 

In  temperate  climates,  during  warm  weather,  these  animals 
have  an  appearance  of  white  opacity,  and  the  liquid  inclosed  in 
the  shell  has  the  same  appearance,  indicated  by  the  term  milkv. 
This  condition  continues  four  or  five  months.  Durino-  this  sea- 
son  they  are  ill-flavored  and  very  unwholesome,  a  moderate  meal 
of  them  frequently  causing  a  severe  attack  of  cholera  morbus.  In 
warm  climates  this  condition  continues  much  long-er,  and  in  suck 


116  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  150. 

situations  it  is  always  dangerous  to  use  them,  except  with  the 
utmost  caution  in  regard  to  quantity  as  well  as  quality. 

The  remaining  mollusks  are  so  little  capable  of  conversion  into 
food,  and  so  likely  to  be  poisonous  in  the  localities  where  they 
are  found,  that  we  should  deem  it  unnecessary  to  particularize, 
even  if  we  possessed  sufficient  knowledge  of  their  properties. 

ARTICULATES. 

(149.)  In  regard  to  the  insects,  spiders,  and  worms  which 
form  the  bulk  of  the  animals  of  this  division,  we  have  but  little 
to  say.  They  are  eaten  largely  by  birds.  People  in  a  low  con- 
dition of  civilization  have  eaten  roasted  grasshoppers,  etc., 
mingled  with  other  food,  as  a  resource  against  starvation. 

The  bodies  of  many  insects  are  imbued  with  acrid  poison,  suf- 
ficiently powerful  to  produce  a  blister  if  the  animal  be  crushed 
and  allowed  to  remain  a  certain  time  in  contact  with  the  skin. 
The  Cantharis  vitatta  (potato  fly),  has  such  properties.  Any  in- 
sect of  this  kind  would  produce  worse  results  if  introduced  into 
the  stomach.  They  are  probably  rather  peppery  food  even  for 
birds.  Other  insects  have  poisonous  fangs,  wdiich  cause  their 
bites  to  be  dreaded ;  and  some  have  a  special  sting  in  the  tail  no 
less  terrible.  The  poison  in  these  cases  seems  to  be  acid  in  its 
nature,  and  may  be  promptly  neutralized  by  ammonia.  Spirits 
or  water  of  ammonia  instantly  applied  is,  therefore,  the  appro- 
priate remedy.  This  remedy  may  cause  as  severe  smarting  as  the 
sting  for  which  it  is  applied,  but  this  promptly  subsides.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  a  healthy  adult  man  has  ever  been  killed  by 
the  wound  of  one  of  these  animals.  There  have  been  persons 
who  liave  died  of  malignant  erysipelas,  excited  by  the  bite  of  a 
spider ;  but  we  are  not  quite  certain  but  tliat  these  Avere  cases  of 
ill-health,  similar  to  those  rare  cases  in  which  a  like  result  has 
followed  the  scratch  of  a  clean  cambric  needle. 

(150.)  The  scorpion,  often  seen  on  board  ship,  in  hot  climates, 
is  noted  for  the  severity  of  the  wound  which  he  inflicts  with  the 
hook  at  the  end  of  his  tail;  and  the  centipede,  in  similar  locali- 
ties, makes  about  as  severe  a  wound  with  his  jaws  ;  but  I  have 
never  known  a  serious  accident  from  either  of  these  animals. 
Men  and  even  horses  have  been  killed  by  the  attack  of  an  entire 


§  152.  ]  RADIATES.  117 

swarm  of  bees,  though  a  single  one  of  them  makes  a  much  less 
severe  wound  than  some  of  the  less  gregarious  insects.  Their 
honey  compensates  us  in  some  degree  for  this,  as  it  is  about  the 
only  generally  esteemed  article  of  food  derived  from  the  whole 
class  of  insects. 

(151.)  The  principal  crusfdccans — lobsters,  shrimps,  and  crabs 
— are  generally  used  for  food ;  but  they  have  their  times  and 
seasons,  like  the  mollusks  and  fish.  They  are  never  good  or 
wholesome  unless  cooked  while  quite  fresh,  and,  in  fact,  they  are 
so  tenacious  of  life  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  kill  them  before 
they  are  spoiled  by  decay,  except  by  casting  the  living  animals 
into  boiling  water.  It  is  probable  that  the  flesh  of  these  animals 
is  sometimes  poisonous  on  account  of  some  peculiarity  of  their 
food.  If  stale  they  certainly  are  unwholesome.  The  sickness 
which  they  occasion  is  cholera,  similar  to  that  caused  by  poisonous 
oysters.  There  are  other  and  rarer  crustaceans,  which  in  cases  of 
emergency  might  be  used  with  the  same  precautions  required 
with  crabs  and  lobsters. 

RADIATES. 

(152.)  The  whole  radiate  division,  so  far  as  known,  scarcely 
affords  either  food  or  poison.  Many  of  the  animals  are  armed 
with  lono-  threads  covered  with  an  acrid  secretion,  with  which 
they  are  able  to  inflict  great  pain  and  numbness  if  they  come  m 
contact  with  a  prett}'  large  surface  of  the  body,  and  on  this  ac- 
count they  should  be  carefully  avoided  in  bathing.  Even  the 
little  floating  bladder,  Portuguese  man-of-war  [Fhysalia  atkmtlca), 
makes  a  verj-  sharp  stinging,  as  of  nettles,  if  one  of  its  threads 
comes  in  contact  with  the  hand.  One  species  of  sea-egg  or  sea- 
urchin  has  been  named  Echinus  escukntus,  from  which  we  may 
infer  that  it  has  been  eaten. 

"  These  are  distinguished  into  three  sorts,  the  black,  the  gray, 

and  the  shooting  sea-egg The  inside  of  the  shell  is  lined 

with  about  five  lobes  of  a  granulated  yellow  substance  resembling 
the  roe  of  a  fish.  These  lobes  are  in  length  about  three  inches  ; 
....  however,  their  bulk  depends  much  on  the  time  of  their 
being  taken,  for  these  lobes  are  larger  and  even  better  tasted  in 
the  full  than  in  the  wane  of  the  moon  ;  but  if  not  quickly  eaten 


118  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §   152. 

or  put  into  stronsj  vinegar  to  harden,  they  very  soon  dissolve  into 
a  reddish  liquid." — (Hughes.) 

As  these  animals  feed  on  each  other,  the  probabilities  are  that 
they  are  not  essentially  poisonous,  but  that  they  may  become  so 
from  adventitious  circumstances,  as  the  ingestion  of  poisonous 
food,  peculiar  conditions  of  the  animal  at  particular  seasons,  and 
various  degrees  of  putrid  decomposition. 

It  is  pretty  sure  that  some  of  the  Protozoa  influence  our  health, 
either  beneficially  or  otherwise.  It  would  seem  that  almost  every 
drop  of  water  in  the  world  is  inhabited  by  animals,  mostly  infu- 
sorians.  With  every  glass  of  water  we  swallow  hundreds,  per- 
haps thousands,  unconscious  of  harm ;  perhaps  they  are  even 
necessary  for  our  comfortable  existence.  Some  of  the  parasites 
which  infest  the  human  body  may  be  derived  from  this  source. 
The  Guinea  worm  [Filaria  guineensis),  the  Trichina  sjiiralis,  Lum- 
bricus,  etc.  These  minute  objects  may  be  the  eggs,  chrysalids,  or 
larvse  of  unknown  animals,  capable  of  transformation  into  dan- 
gerous parasites  in  our  bodies,  and  hence  the  propriety  of  the 
Japanese  custom  of  boiling  water,  especially  of  doubtful  character, 
before  drinking  it,  and  of  thus  avoiding  the  necessity  of  swallow- 
ing drugs  to  poison  these  creatures. 


CHAPTER    XVL 


BOTANY. 


(153.)  Vegetables  and  fruits  vary  so  much  in  their  physio- 
logical effects,  that  a  fair  comprehension  of  the  subject  requires 
more  detail  than  we  have  given  to  the  subjects  embraced  in  the 
preceding  chapter.  Besides  considering  the  fitness  of  the  various 
classes  of  plants  for  food,  and  their  dangers  as  poisons,  we  feel 
called  upon  to  notice  their  physiological  action  on  the  system  in  a 
general  way,  and  in  some  instances  their  properties  as  medicines. 
This  subject  is  not  without  its  difficulties,  which  appear  to  have 
been  nearly  overlooked  by  one  party,  and  needlessly  exaggerated 
by  another.  By  one  party  we  are  told  that  with  a  competent 
knowledge  of  botany  we  may,  in  a  strange  country,  among  plants 
which  are  new  to  us  and  unknown  in  the  pharmacopoeias,  select 
with  confidence  appropriate  remedies  for  diseases,  point  out  the 
dangerous  poisons,  and  select  wholesome  food.  The  other  party 
tells  us  that  plants  very  nearly  allied  botanically  are  quite  differ- 
ent in  properties,  and  that  hence  this  sort  of  knowledge  is  of  no 
use  except  as  it  enables  us  to  recognize  known  species.  The  truth 
is  found  between  these  extremes  of  opinion.  We  find  that  the 
plants  nearly  enough  allied  to  be  included  in  the  same  genus,  are 
almost  universally  so  nearly  identical  in  properties  that  they  are 
used  indiscriminately  for  the  same  purposes ;  and  that  the  plants 
even  of  the  larger  subdivisions  or  orders,  mostly  have  a  general 
resemblance  in  properties.  But  we  do  occasionally  find,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  plants  nearly  allied  are  very  different  in  their 
effects.  Thus  the  plants  producing  the  edible  potato,  tomato,  and 
egg-plant,  are  nearly  allied  with  those  producing  the  deadly 
nightshade,  the  poisonous  henbane,  the  fire-red  pepper,  and  the 
disgusting  tobacco ;  hence  it  is  not  always  quite  safe  to  infer  that 
a  strange  plant  has  precisely  the  same  properties  as  its  botiuiical 
relation  with  which  we  may  happen  to  be  acquainted. 


120  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  156, 


POLYPELATOrS    EXOGENS, 

(154.)  Eanunculace^. — The  Buttercup  Family  of  Plants. — 
The  plants  of  this  family  have  a  colorless  acrid  juice,  generally 
more  or  less  narcotic.  Some  of  them  are  dangerous  acro-narcotic 
poisons.  Their  active  properties  are  mostly  dissipated  by  drying, 
or  the  temperature  of  boiling  water. 

The  numerous  species  of  ranunculus,  buttercups,  which  grow 
all  over  our  country,  are,  so  far  as  known,  identical  in  their  action 
on  the  system.  These  herbs  bruised  and  applied  to  the  skin  are 
(!a]xible  of  raising  a  blister.  Children  have  been  killed  by  swal- 
lowing the  flowers. 

The  Clematis,  virgin's  bower,  in  all  its  cultivated  varieties,  has 
irritating  properties,  not  excelled  in  virulence  by  those  of  the  but- 
tercups themselves. 

The  various  species  of  Hepatica,  liverAs^ort;  CopAis,  goldthread ; 
Helleborus ;  Aconitum,  wolfsbane;  and  Cimicifiiga,  bugbane,  have 
well-known  medical  properties.  Hellebore  and  aconite  are  dan- 
gerous poisons. 

(155.)  Helleborus  niger,  black  hellebore,  M^as  much  used  bv  the 
ancient  physicians,  especially  in  the  treatment  of  insanity.  It  is 
an  active  emeto-cathartic  in  appropriate  doses,  but  in  excessive 
doses,  an  acro-narcotic  poison. 

(156.)  Aconitum  ■napellus,  wolfsbane,  monkshood,  is  an  active 
and  dangerous  acro-narcotic  poison.  It  has  no  smell,  but  when 
chewed  it  occasions  a  strange  tingling  sensation  about  the  mouth, 
particularly  in  the  tongue  and  throat.  In  large  doses  it  produces 
symptoms  of  gastric  irritation,  accompanied  or  followed  by  great 
muscular  rigidity,  convulsions,  stupor,  coma,  and  death.  Dr. 
Mull,  of  Birmingham,  England,  took  tincture  of  aconite  for 
four  days,  beginning  with  five  drops,  two  or  three  times  a  day, 
increasing  the  dose  to  six,  eight,  and  ten  drops,  so  that  on  the 
evening  of  the  fourth  day  he  took  ten  drops.  On  the  morning 
of  the  fifth  day  the  symptoms  of  nervous  derangement  attributed 
to  the  use  of  the  medicine  appeared,  and  he  died  on  the  morning 
of  the  seventh  day. — [Dunc/lison.) 

There  are  other  species  of  aconite,  of  similar  properties,  from 
which  the   leaves  in  the  shops  are  probably  in  part  (l(>rived.     It 


§  160.  ]  BOTANY.  121 

is  roniarkablc  that  this  ])oison,  called  wolfsbane,  should  produce 
symptoms  somewhat  resembling-  hydrophobia. 

(157.)  Cimicifuffa  /Y«r»)osrt,  bugbane,blacksnake-root,  appears 
to  be  a  nervous  sedative,  without  any  very  decided  action  on  the 
secretions.  In  excessive  doses  it  may  possibly  act  as  an  acro- 
narcotic,  but  it  certainly  is  not  at  all  dangerous  in  tliis  way.  It 
^\ould  appear,  from  some  of  the  cases  cited,  to  have  been  used 
very  advantageously  in  chorea  and  other  diseases  of  irregular 
nervous  action.  There  are  several  other  species  of  cimicifuga, 
less  common,  but  of  similar  properties. 

Delphinium  staphisaf/ria,  stavesacre  of  Southern  Europe,  is  a 
dangerous  acro-narcotic  poison,  used  in  ointments  to  destroy  ver- 
min. At  least  seven  species  of  Delphinium,  larkspur,  are  found 
in  our  country,  and  are  probably  as  poisonous  as  the  European 
species. 

Coptis,  goldthread,  is  a  simple  bitter,  comparable  to  quassia. 
(158.)  'Magnoliace^. — The  Magnolia  Family. — This  order 
comprises  the  most  magniiicent  of  our  flowering  forest  trees.  The 
bark,  leaves,  and  fruit  are  more  or  less  aromatic,  and  they  are 
strongly  bitter  and  tonic.  There  is  no  dangerous  poisonous  prop- 
erty in  any  tree  of  this  order. 

The  fruit  of  the  Illicium  anisafum,  star  anise-seed,  has,  in  a 
strong  degree,  the  aromatic  and  pleasantly  stimulating  properties 
which  belong  to  the  spices  generally. 

(159.)  The  Lirioclendron  tulipifem,  tulip  poplar,  Is  less  aro- 
matic than  the  preceding,  though  its  flowers  have  a  delightful 
fragrance,  which  perfumes  the  breeze.  Its  bark,  being  less  un- 
pleasantly bitter  than  cinchona,  and  an  excellent  tonic,  was  rap- 
idly coming  into  general  use  in  the  treatment  of  intermittents, 
when  the  discovery  of  quinine  superseded  both. 

(160.)  Anoxace^. — Custard  Apples. — This  order  of  plants 
consists  of  small  trees  and  shrubs,  which  produce  some  of  the  most 
delicious  fruits  known.  All  parts  of  these  trees  are  somewhat 
aromatic  and  tonic,  without  any  very  decided  properties  worthy 
of  notice,  except  in  their  delicious  fruits.  The  rind  of  these 
fruits  is  of  a  dark-green  color,  rather  thick  and  coarse,  and 
marked  off*  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  the  pineapple.  There 
is  no  dangerous  property  in  any  fruit  of  this  form  that  we  are 


122  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  163. 

aware  of,  except  in  tlie  pineapple  itself,  which  belongs  to  a  very 
different  order. 

(161.)  The  custard  apples  {Anona  squamosa),  and  other  spe- 
cies, are  the  most  common  of  these  fruits  in  the  West  Indies. 
We  have  never  known  any  harm  to  result  from  eating  these  de- 
licious fruits,  even  among  men  just  in  from  long  voyages,  and 

Fig.  11. 


Anona  Squamosa. 

liable  on  this  account  greatly  to  exceed  the  bounds  of  prudence. 
There  are  many  varieties,  varying  much  in  quality,  but  they  are 
all  good.  The  subdivisions  of  the  rind  of  the  custard  apples 
are  rounded  and  prominent,  lying  over  each  other  in  the  manner 
of  scales.  Each  fruit  of  the  best  varieties  weighs  about  four 
ounces. 

(162.)  The  sour  sop  {Porcelia  ?)  is  abundant  in  the  same  local- 
ities. It  is  pleasantly  acid,  with  a  mixture  of  rather  tough  fibres 
in  its  pulp,  but  it  is  by  no  means  to  be  despised  in  warm  weather, 
especially  if  other  fruit  be  scarce.  It  is  quite  wholesome.  It  is 
a  much  larger  fruit  than  the  custard  apples,  and  not  so  regular  in 
form.  The  subdivisions  of  the  rind  are  not  so  distinctly  marked, 
being  merely  indicated  by  little  black  spines. 

(163.)  The  cherimoya  of  Peru  {Anona  tripetala,  Tschudi),  is 
perhaps  the  mo.'^t  delicious  fruit  known,  rivalling  the  mangostecn 
of  India.  We  have  never  heard  of  any  one  impairing  his  liealth, 
or  subjecting  himself  to  discomfort,  by  eating  cherimoyas.  This 
fruit  is  about  as  large  as   the  preceding ;  it  weighs  one  or  two 


a 


v* 


w 


^^f 


§    162.    SOURSOP 


Thos   Sinclair*  Son,  LitVi, 


§  164.  ] 


BOTANY. 


123 


pounds.  Tlie  subdivisions  of  tlic  rind  are  distinctly  nmrkod,  hut 
in  tliis  fruit  the  dividing  lines  arc  ridges,  the  lobes  of  the  fruit 
being  indicated  by  shallow  pits. 

(1(34.)  The  Cincinnati  custard  apple  (Asiminn  irilobd,  Dunal ; 
Uvaria,  Torrcy  and  Gray ;  Anona,  Linnceus),  grows  on  a  small 
and  beautiful  tree,  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  high,  in  Pennsylvania, 
and  the  States  south  and  west.     The  fruit  is  regularly  sold  in  the 


Anoua  Tripetala,  Cherimoya. 


Cincinnati  market  during  its  season,  October.  It  is  symmetrical 
in  form,  about  the  size  of  the  custard  apple,  but  more  like  the 
cherimoya  in  structure.  This  fruit  is  highly  esteemed  by  some, 
its  flavor  being  compared  to  that  of  ripe  persimmons.  When  we 
reflect  what  cultivation  and  selection  of  varieties  have  done  for 
the  apple,  the  pear,  the  grape,  the  plum,  and  the  peach,  we  may 
reasonably  hope  that  by  similar  influences  this  may  eventually 
become  more  delicious  than  any  fruit  which  now  exists  in  this 
part  of  the  world,  especially  as  it  now  has  a  regular  market,  so 
that  such  influences  are  at  work.  There  are  six  other  species  in 
the  United  States,  but  they  are  all  shrubs,  and  their  fruits  are  not 
so  large  and  are  less  pleasant  to  the  taste. 


124  NAVAL   HYGIENE.  [  §  167. 

(165.)  Sa  RRACENTACEiE. — American  Pitcher  Plants. — These 
plants  have  no  very  active  properties.  One  of  them,  the  Sarra- 
cenia  purpurea,  has  lately  obtained  a  reputation  as  a  prophylactic, 
and  even  cure,  for  small-pox.  This  credit,  not  being  supported 
by  any  sufficient  evidence,  is  probably  without  good  foundation. 

(166.)  PAPAVERACEiE. — The  Poppy  Family. — Tlie  plants  of 
this  order  are  partly  characterized  by  a  milky  or  opaque-colored 
juice.  Among  them  is  the  most  important  known  medicinal  plant, 
the  Papaver  somniferum,  the  ojnum  poppy.  Most  of  the  plants 
of  this  order,  jierhaps  all  of  them,  possess  somewhat  similar 
properties,  and  hence  must  be  used  with  due  caution. 

Chelidouium  majus,  celandine,  is  said  to  possess  cathartic  prop- 
erties, and  its  juice  has  been  used  to  cure  warts  and  other  cuta- 
neous diseases. 

Sanguinaria  canadensis,  blood-root,  is  an  acrid  emetic,  all  2)arts 
of  the  plant  possessing  active  properties.  It  is  not  much  used. 
In  large  doses  it  is  an  acro-narcotic  poison. 

The  other  plants  of  this  order,  Argemone,  Glaucium,  Meconop- 
sis,  Eschscholtzia,  etc.,  probably  possess  in  a  less  degree  the  ano- 
dyne and  soporific  properties  of  opium,  and  require  caution  in 
their  use. 

(167.)  Crucifee^. — The  Ilustard  Family. — This  extensive 
family  of  plants,  containing  about  two  hundred  genera,  and 
probably  two  thousand  species,  is  one  of  exceeding  importance ; 
l)ut,  as  there  is  a  uniformity  of  properties  throughout,  we  can 
afford  to  be  brief.  These  plants  contain  an  acrid  oil,  diffused 
through  every  part,  which  contains  sulphur  as  one  of  its  con- 
stituents. They  are  entirely  devoid  of  starchy  or  saccharine 
matter.  Though  some  of  them,  as  mustard,  are  pretty  active, 
and  might  l)e  ap})licd  to  the  body  in  such  a  way  as  to  do  harm, 
there  is  not  one  which  can  be  considered  jjoisonous.  They  do  no 
harm  beyond  the  local  irritation.  We  may  likewise  admit  the 
possibility  that  a  person  might  hurt  himself  by  eating  too  many 
uncooked  turnips  or  radishes.  Some  of  the  plants  belonging  to 
this  extensive  order  are  to  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
and  are  very  valuable  to  those  persons  whose  long-continued  sea 
diet  has  made  a  salad  of  such  articles  a  great  luxury.  They  arc 
known  as  scurvy  grass,  cresses,  etc.  In  our  temperate  climate 
some  of  them,  as  cabbages,  turnips,  horse-radishes,  nasturtiums, 


§  171.  ]  BOTANY.  125 

etc.,  are  preserved  for  use  thronoh  tlie  winter,  and  liave  caused 
scorbutus,  the  sea-scurvy,  the  old  winter  plague,  to  disappear. 

(168.)  Capparidace^. — The  Caper  Family. — These  plants 
resemble  very  closely  the  cruciferous,  both  in  form  and  ju'operties. 
The  leaves  and  bark  are  bitter  and  nauseous,  some  of  them,  per- 
haps, poisonous.  One  of  them,  the  Capparis  spinosa,  supplies 
the  essential  ingredient  of  caper  sauce,  so  much  approved  of  with 
boiled  mutton. 

(169.)  Malvaceae. — The  Mallow  Family. — The  plants  of  this 
order  abound  in  mucilage,  and  the  softer  parts,  leaves,  etc.,  form 
excellent  emollient  poultices.     They  possess  no  active  properties. 

The  Abchnoschus  esculentm,  okra,  affords  the  ugly-looking 
pods  which  enter  extensively  into  the  composition  of  gumbo  soup. 
They  are  likewise  used  as  pickles,  and  perhaps  in  other  ways. 
The  important  plants  of  this  order  are  two  or  three  species  of 
Gossyjnum,  cotton. 

(170.)  AuEANTiACEuE. — The  Lemon  Family. — This  order  is 
composed  of  beautiful  trees  and  shrubs.  The  flowers,  leaves,  and 
the  rind  of  the  fruits  are  abundantly  charged  with  volatile  oil,  of 
delightful  fragrance.  These  oils  are  much  used  in  perfumery. 
The  great  importance  of  these  plants  is  in  their  fruits,  the  pulp 
of  which,  containing  much  free  citric  acid,  is  much  sought  for  in 
w^arm  climates. 

Some  of  them,  as  the  orange.  Citrus  aumntium,  abound  so 
much  in  sugar,  and  are  so  moderately  charged  with  acid,  that  we 
eat  them  as  they  come  from  the  tree,  without  other  preparation 
than  the  removal  of  the  rind.  Some  varieties  are  so  bitter  as  to 
be  unfit  for  use,  except  medicinally,  or  as  a  prophylactic  against 
malarial  fevers. 

Other  species,  Citrus  limonum,  Citrus  medico,  etc.,  are  too  acid 
to  be  eaten  as  fruits.  But  they  are  invaluable  on  account  of  their 
cooling  acid  juice;  wdiich,  duly  mixed  Avith  sugar  and  water, 
forms  lemonade,  which,  wdien  used  in  moderation  in  warm 
weather,  is  the  most  pleasant  and  most  wholesome  of  drinks. 
Lemon-juice,  derived  from  these  fruits,  and  properly  prepared,  is 
the  great  dependence  of  the  British  navy  against  that  terrific  pes- 
tilence, the  sea-scur^T. 

(171.)  Geeaniace.^. —  Geraniums.  —  The  beautiful  plants 
which  constitute  this  order  are  cultivated  for  ornament  through- 


126  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  1  74. 

out  the  civilized  world.  Their  leaves  are  fragrant  with  volatile 
oil,  varying  in  character  with  the  species.  The  roots  are  simply 
astringent,  without  bitterness  or  other  unpleasant  flavor.  One 
species,  Geranium  maculatmn,  is  officinal. 

(172.)  Anacardiace^. — Sumachs. — This  order  of  plants  is 
composed  of  trees  and  shrubs,  with  a  resinous  or  milky  juice, 
very  irritant,  and  even  caustic,  but  of  great  value  as  a  material 
for  varnish.  The  celebrated  Japan  varnish,  which  becomes  so 
exceedingly  hard  and  durable,  is  composed  largely  of  the  juice  of 
a  species  of  Bhus.  The  exhalations  of  this  varnish  are  so  irri- 
tating as  to  produce  a  troublesome  inflammation  of  any  exposed 
surface  of  the  skin.  The  workmen  are  ol>liged  to  apply  it  in  the 
open  air,  and  to  keep  themselves  in  such  a  position  that  the  wind 
shall  carry  the  exhalations  away  from  them  while  the  varnish  is 
drying.  The  exhalations  from  the  growing  plants  of  this  order 
produce  a  similar  result ;  but  we  have  observed  in  regard  to  this, 
that  a  young,  vigorously  growing  poison  vine,  may  be  approached 
in  any  direction,  and  even  handled  with  impunity  ;  whereas  an 
old  plant,  with  a  few  withering,  half-dead  branches,  is  very  apt 
to  aifect  those  who  go  anywhere  near  it.  The  young  plants,  when 
cut  down  and  drying,  are  equally  dangerous ;  and  worst  of  all  is 
the  smoke  of  these  weeds  when  burning. 

JRhus  toxicodendron,  one  of  the  plants  of  this  order,  has  been 
used  medicinally.  It  is  a  dangerous,  acro-narcotic  poison,  similar 
in  its  operation  to  strychnine,  and  it  was  used  in  similar  cases. 
This  is  the  plant  which  has  been  recognized  as  producing  staggers, 
the  milk  sickness  of  the  Western  country ;  the  poison  being  trans- 
mitted through  the  cow  to  those  using  her  milk  or  aiting  her 
flesh. — [Chase.) 

(173.)  The  cashew  of  the  tropics,  Cnssuvium  pomifcruni  and 
Cassuvium  jjyrtferum,  is  derived  from  a  plant  of  this  order,  Ana- 
cardium  occidentale,  and  is  said  to  contain  a  delicious  oily  pulp  ; 
but  its  rind  has  a  caustic  juice,  which  blisters  the  skin  and  cures 
warts.  This  fruit  is  often  seen  in  the  markets,  but  it  requires 
care  in  handling. 

(174.)  The  celebrated  mangosteen  of  Southern  Asia,  Garcenia 
man(/ostana,  is  said  to  belong  to  this  order,  all  parts  of  the  ]ilant 
except  its  fruit  being  poisonous.     In  this  case  it  would  seem  that 


§  176.  ] 


BOTANY. 


127 


the  most  delicious  fruit  is  associated  in  the  same  plant  with  the 
most  deadly  poison. 

(175.)  ViTACE^. —  Gropcvines.  —  These    plants   mostly    pro- 
duce grapes,  generally  delicious  acid  fruits ;  some  of  them,  too 


Cassuviuni  poniiferum. 


acid  to  be  eaten  without  sugar  and  cooking.  The  leaves  are 
likewise  acid.  The  juice  of  grapes,  more  or  less  fermented,  had 
been  the  ordinary  drink  at  meals  till  tea  and  coffee  took  its  place. 
The  ill-effects  of  excess  in  wine  were  about  as  well  understood 
anciently  as  at  present.  "  Wine  is  a  mocker,  strong  drink  is 
raging  ;  and  whosoever  is  deceived  thereby  is  not  wise." — (Prov^ 
XX,  1.) 

(176.)  Leguminos^. — Beans. — This  veiy  extensive  order  of 
plants  possesses  considerable  variety  of  properties,  perhaps  with- 
out embracing  a  single  poisonous  plant.  But  the  calabar  bean, 
one  of  the  most  virulent  of  known  poisons,  is  referred  by  our 
authorities  to  this  order  (r.  Loganiacece,  §  192).     The  seeds  of 


128  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  180. 

most  of  them  are  beans  and  peas,  which  are  edible  and  of  great 
vahie  for  food. 

(177.)  Some  species  afford  gummy  or  mucilaginous  extracts  or 
exudations,  which  are  merely  nutritive  or  demulcent.  Such  are 
the  Acacia  vera,  Acacia  arabica,  etc.,  which  supply  the  gum 
arabic  of  commerce;  and  the  Glycyrrhiza  glabra,  the  source  of 
licorice. 

Many  species  afford  simple  astringent  extracts.  The  Ptero- 
carpus  erinaceus  is  said  to  be  the  source  of  kino ;  and  Hematoxy- 
lum  campeachianum,  logwood,  furnishes  a  similar  extract. 

Other  species  afford  balsamic  exudations.  The  Myroxylon 
peruiferum,  is  the  source  of  balsam  of  Peru ;  Myroxylon  tolui- 
ferum,  of  balsam  of  tolu ;  and  Copaifcr  officinalis,  of  balsam  of 
copaiva. 

(178.)  Still  other  species  are  among  the  most  valuable  of  ca- 
thartic medicines.  Cassia  senna  and  several  other  species  supply 
the  senna  leaves  of  the  shops.  Cassia  marilandica  has  similar 
properties,  but  is  less  active.  The  Cassia  fistula  and  other  species 
are  likewise  cultivated  and  used  for  this  purpose. 

(179.)  The  pods  of  one  species,  3Incuna pruriens,  cowhage,  are 
covered  with  prickly  down,  easily  detached,  which,  coming  into 
contact  with  the  face  or  hands,  causes  a  most  intolerable  itching. 
The  plant  is  on  this  account  to  be  avoided.  This  prickly  mate- 
rial, mixed  with  molasses,  is  administered  as  a  vermifuge ;  and 
Avithout  appearing  to  injure  the  stomach  or  bowels,  it  is  very 
effective  in  stinging  the  worms  to  death. 

Mncuna  tuberosa  bears  tubers  in  some  respects  comparable  to 
the  potato ;  its  starch-granules  are  very  large  and  symmetrical. 

(180.)  Indigo,  a  product  of  the  Indigo/era  tinctoria  and  other 
species,  has  been  said,  I  do  not  know  on  what  evidence,  to  be  a 
"  violent  poison."  This  is  probably  a  mistake.  A  few  years  ago 
I  was  called  to  see  immediately  a  child  poisoned  with  indigo. 
The  child,  about  a  year  old,  while  his  mother  was  too  busy  Avash- 
ing  clotlies  to  see  what  he  was  about,  got  possession  of  a  new  blue- 
bag  and  did  as  children  are  a})t  to  do  with  such  things.  A\  hen 
the  blue-bag  was  wanted  it  was  found  with  the  baby,  but  its  con- 
tents had  mostly  disappeared.  I  found  the  child  apparently  quite 
well,  only  wondering  a  little,  })crliaps,  at  the  unusual  hubbub.  A 
moderate  dose  of  ipecacuanha  caused  the  ejection  of  a  large  (pian- 


§  184.  ]  BOTANY.  129 

tity  of  blue  matter  from  the  stomnch  ;  but  I  ^^';ls  imable  to  per- 
ceive any  symptom  of  pain,  or  distress,  or  derangement  of  health 
about  the  child,  except  what  was  fairly  referable  to  the  operation 
of  the  emetic.  This  child  had  at  least  one-fourth  of  an  ounce  of 
indigo  in  his  stomach  for  more  than  an  hour. 

(181.)  Rosacea. — This  extensive  order  supplies  many  of  our 
most  delicious  fruits  and  most  beautiful  flowere,  and  not  one  dan- 
gerous poison. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  particularize  the  properties  of  apples, 
pears,  and  quinces ;  plums,  peaches,  and  almonds ;  cherries, 
apricots  and  nectarines;  dcAvberries,  raspberries,  and  strawberries. 
The  bark  and  roots  of  many  of  the  plants  furnishing  these  fruits 
are  bitter  astringents,  more  or  less  used  in  medicine. 

The  kernels  of  the  bitter  almond,  Amygdcdus  amara,  and  other 
fruits  of  this  form,  are  capable  of  furnishing  prussic  acid,  a  deadly 
poison.  The  taste  of  these  kernels,  however,  is  such  as  to  obviate 
all  danger  from  them. 

(182.)  Indian  physic,  GUIenia  frifoUafa  and  GiUenla  stipidacea, 
appears  to  be  a  safe  and  efficient  emetic,  Avhich  may  be  substituted, 
without  nuieh  inconvenience,  for  ipecacuanha. 

(183.)  MYRTACE.E. — Nearly  if  not  quite  all  the  thirteen  hun- 
dred plants  belonging  to  the  myrtle  family  are  supplied  with  an 
aromatic  volatile  oil,  chiefly  residing  in  the  pellucid  dotting  of 
the  leaves.  They  furnish  many  of  the  common  spices.  These 
plants,  as  well  as  the  Rosacece,  belong  to  the  class  Icoscmdria  of 
Linnreus,  and  are  not  j^oisonous.  The  fruits  belonging  here  are 
the  Punica  r/mnatum,  pomegranate ;  Pisidium  pyriferinn,  white 
guava ;  and  Pkidlum  jjomifenivi,  red  guava.  A  curious  property 
of  the  guavas  is  that  the  green  fruit  is  astringent,  causing  consti- 
pation, while  the  ripe  fruit  has  an  opposite  effect.  The  most  im- 
portant spices  of  this  order  are  the  Caryophyllus  aromaticus, 
cloves ;  and  Myrtus  pimcnta,  allspice. 

(184.)  Cactace^ — Prickly  Pears. — These  curious  plants  are 
found  to  possess  very  valuable  properties  in  the  dry  deserts,  where 
they  mostly  grow.  They  are  in  no  way  poisonous,  and  their 
slightly  acid,  watery  juice  is  available  for  drink  in  situations  where 
water  is  not  obtainable.  It  is  said  that  asses  and  mules  can  very 
well  manage  to  remove  the  prickles,  and  possess  themselves  of 

9 


130 


NAVAL    HYGIENE. 


[  §  188. 


this  precious  material.  They  produce  fruits  which  vary  much  in 
size,  form,  and  flavor,  according  to  the  species. 

(185.)  The  OpuTitia  vulgaris  bears  a  beautiful,  smooth,  scarlet, 
pear-shaped  fruit. 

Other  species  bear  a  green  and  prickly  fruit. 

(186.)  There  is  a  climbing  triangular  vine  of  this  family,  which 
bears  a  very  fine  red  fruit,  weighing  about  a  pound.  In  Mexico 
this  fruit  is  called  pitaya. 

(187.)  Passiflorace^ — Passion  Flowers. — There  are  several 
species  of  passion  flower  which  bear  edible  fruits,  called  granadil- 
las,  maypops,  etc.  These  fruits  are  not  generally  very  attractive ; 
but  there  is  a  delicious  fruit  of  this  kind,  which  flourishes  at  the 
Island  of  St.  Thomas,  and  doubtless  elsewhere. 

(188.)  CucuRBiTACE^ — The  Melon  Family. — This  order  of 
plants  contains  some  delicious  fruits  ;  but  it  is  necessary  to  remem- 

FlG.  14. 


(^itrullus  colocynthis. 


ber  that  they  are  nearly  allied  to  colocynth,  briony,  and  elaterium, 
dangerously  active  cathartics.  The  poisonous  principle  of  these 
fruits  is  generally  associated  M'itli  bitterness,  so  that  there  is  not 
much  danger  of  poisoning  except  from  the  more  familiar  of  them. 


§    186,  PITAYA 

TKos    Sinclair*  Son,  Lith, 


--'-'^^^^^^'^w^-.^.. 


§.189,    PAWPAW 


Thou   SmtlmrASon.Luh. 


§  191.  ]  BOTANY.  131 

These,  when  unripe  or  badly  prepared,  may  be  poisonous.     All 
of  these  fruits  should  be  used  with  great  moderation. 

The  eommon  eueumber,  Cucumis  sativus,  sliced  thin,  M'itli  salt 
and  vineo-ar,  quiekly  loses  all  deleterious  properties,  and  is  a  de- 
lieious  and  wholesome  salad. 

The  watermelon,  Citrullus  vulgaris,  is  a  very  dangerous  fruit. 
Where  it  has  been  long  and  carefully  cultivated,  varieties  have 
been  produced  which  when  ripe  are  delicious  and  wholesome. 
There  have  been  occasions  of  men  eating  watermelons  unripe 
and  of  inferior  quality,  from  which  serious  accidents  have  oc- 
curred. They  generally  produce  an  attack  of  cholera  morbus, 
which  may  prove  fatiil.  We  have  seen  in  the  market  at  Ma- 
zatlan,  Mexico,  watermelons  capable  of  producing  this  result. 
The  French  army  in  Egypt  suffered  much  from  watermelons  of 
bad  quality. 

Pumpkins  and  squashes,  the  various  species  of  Cucurbita,  are 
eaten  only  when  cooked,  and  in  this  condition  they  are  good  food. 

(189.)  ThejMwpaw  of  the  tropics,  tree  melon,  Carica  papaya, 
is  a  tree  sometimes  attaining  the  height  of  twenty  feet.  The  fruit 
is  about  the  size  and  form  of  the  common  muskmelon.  The 
pulp  is  rather  insipid,  but  the  seeds,  some  of  which  should  be 
eaten  with  the  fruit,  have  a  pleasant  pungent  flavor,  curiously 
like  the  flavor  of  watercresses.  This  fruit  is  very  common  and 
much  eaten  by  sailors,  and  we  have  never  known  harm  to  result. 
When  eaten  freely  it  produces  a  moderately  laxative  effect. 

(190.)  UMBELLIFER.E — The  Pavsley  Family. — This  extensive 
order  embraces  plants  which  vary  exceedingly  in  their  properties. 
They  are  generally  merely  aromatic  and  carminative ;  as  fennel, 
anise,  dill,  carui,  etc.  Some  of  them  by  cultivation  lose  their 
aromatic  and  stimulant  properties  in  some  degree,  as  carrots, 
parsnips,  celery,  etc. 

Some  of  these  plants  supply  exudations  of  unpleasant  fragrance, 
which  are  used  as  antispasmodic  medicines.  The  Ferula  asafoet- 
ida,  and  Dorema  ammoniacum,  furnish  products  of  this  kind. 

Conium  maculatum,  poison-hemlock,  and  Cicuta  virosa,  w^ater- 
hemlock,  are  powerful  acro-narcotic  poisons. 

MONOPETALOUS  EXOGENS. 

(191.)  RuBiACE^. — The  plants  of  this  order  possess  various 
and  active  properties.     Not  one  of  them,  however,  is  dangerously 


132  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  191. 

poisonous.     Rubia  tinctonim  furnishes  the  madder  of  commerce, 
a  A'ahiable  dyestuff. 

Fig.  15. 


Apocynum  cannabinum. 

The  ipecacuanha  of  the  shops  is  the  root  of  the  Cephaelis  ipe- 
cacuanha of  Brazil.  It  is  the  most  gentle  and  efficient  emetic 
substance  known,  causing  the  evacuation  of  the  stomach  with  the 
least  possible^  amount  of  distress  or  pain.  It  is  said  that  other 
species  and  allied  genera  possess  similar  properties. 

A^arious  species  of  Cincliona,  growing  in  the  elevated  mountain 
regions  of  tropical  America,  supply  us  with  (piinint',  the  most 
im})ortant  article  of  the  Materia  INlcdica  except  oi)ium. 

Coffee  is  the  fruit  of  the  Caffea  arahk-a,  the  great  benefits  of 
which  will  probably  never  be  estimated  as  highly  as  they  deserve. 


§  192.  ] 


BOTANY. 


133 


(192.)  LoGANiACEyE,  Poison  Beans;  ApoCYNEiE,  Dof/bancs; 
AscLEPiADACE^,  3Ii!kwecds. — All  the  plants  of  tliet^c  throe  orders 
are  poisonous.  Some  of  them  procluoc  the  most  deadly  poisons 
known.  Strychnine,  the  active  principle  of  StrijcJuios  mix  vomica 
and  other  species,  is  among  the  most  active.  It  is  already  ob- 
taining a  place  by  the  side  of  arsenic  in  the  annals  of  secret 
murder.     The  Strychnos  to.vifcra  and  Strychuos  cogens  are  the 

Fig.  16. 


Apocynum  andros»mifoIium. 

source  of  the  terrific  woorari  with  which  the  Indians  of  Central 
America  poison  their  arrows.  The  Strychnos  tieute,  of  Java,  is 
the  celebrated  upas  tree.  The  Cerbera  tanghin,  of  ISIadagascar, 
is  said  to  be  so  poisonous  that  a  single  seed,  the  size  of  an  almond, 
is  sufficient  to  poison  twenty  men.  This  ls  the  celebrated  ordeal 
nut  of  the  east  coast  of  Africa.  The  ordeal  nut  of  the  west  coast, 
Physostigma,  the  Calabar  bean,  is  referred  to  the  order  Legumi- 
nosce,  though  represented  as  precisely  as  bad  as  the  other ;  one 
bean  the  size  of  an  almond  being  sufficient  to  kill  twenty  men. 

One  of  the  Asclepiadacese,  in  1871,  was  introduced  to  the 
medical  profession  under  the  name  of  Cundurango,  as  an  effective 


134 


NAVAL  HYGIENE. 


[  §  193. 


cure  for  cancer.  It  was  found  to  be  a  new  plant — a  new  genus 
was  suggested  to  hold  it ;  and  it  received  the  appropriate  name  of 
Psemma(^ennetes,  father  of  lies. — [San.  Rep.,  1873.) 

(193.)  Pink  root,  Spigelia  marilandica ,  is  probably  the  least 
dangerous  plant  of  its  order.  It  is  one  of  our  most  esteemed 
vermifuge  medicines,  and  has  never  been  known  to  do  harm 

when  administered  with 
^^°'  ^^'  due  caution.     I  recollect 

meeting,  a  few  years 
since,  a  much-esteemed 
friend  in  the  course  of 
his  morning  round,  who 
expressed  himself  some- 
what as  follows :  "  I  have 
just  witnessed  one  of  the 
most  distressing  scenes 
which  it  has  ever  fallen 
to  my  lot  to  encounter. 
Yesterday  a  fine  healthy 
child  of  Mr.  G.,  our 
apothecary,  was  a  little 
cross,  so  far  as  I  can 
understand,  and  perhaps 
picked  his  nose,  from 
which  the  nurse  conclud- 
ing he  had  worms,  ap- 
plied to  the  clerk  in  the 
store  for  medicine,  and 
received  a  package  of  the 
last  puffed  quackery.  The 
infusion  was  prepared 
and  administered  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  direc- 
tions, and  tlic  conse- 
quence was  the  convul- 
sions and  death  which  I 
witnessed.  I  had  not  the 
heart  to  hint  it  to  the 
family,  already  sufficiently  distressed,  but  it  must  be  done.     The 


Spigelia  marilandica. 


§  195    ]  BOTANY.  135 

same  murderous  trick  was  enacted  here  about  six  yeare  ago ;  the 
same  sort  of  ahuanac  was  gratuitously  distributed,  and  1  traced 
to  this  cause  the  death  of  twelve  children,  which  occurred  with 
similar  symptoms  at  that  time.  I  examined  a  package  of  the 
medicine,  and  it  contained  nothing  but  clear  leaves  of  spigelia, 
the  stems  and  roots  being  removed."  Dr.  Chalmers  {Hidory  of 
South  Carolina)  gives  an  account  of  the  death  of  tAvo  children, 
caused  by  pink  root.  The  symptoms  produced  by  a  poisonous 
dose  of  this  plant  are  giddiness,  dimness  of  vision  with  dilated 
pupils,  convulsions  of  the  muscles  of  the  eyes,  general  convul- 
sions, and  death.  On  the  whole,  I  am  inclined  to  the  opinion 
that  a  large  proportion  of  the  deaths  of  children  by  convulsions 
are  deaths  from  carelessly  administered  worm  tea. 

Two  other  species  of  spigelia,  SprgeUa  anthclmia  and  SpigeUa 
glahrata,  are  mentioned  as  active  poisons  known  in  the  \yest 
India  Islands. 

(194.)  Composite — Simflotoers  ;  Asters. — This  immense  order 
of  plants,  including  at  least  one  thousand  genera  and  ten  thou- 
sand species,  is  remarkable  for  containing  a  great  many  medicinal 
plants,  none  of  which  has  any  dangerous  activity. 

Lactuca  sativa,  garden  lettuce,  the  young  leaves  of  which  make 
a  pleasant  salad,  becomes  pretty  strongly  narcotic  as  the  season 
advances,  and  the  inspissated  juice,  called  lactucarium,  though 
much  less  active,  is  comparable  in  some  respects  to  opium. 

Chamomile,  Anthemis  nohilh,  and  other  species,  are  simple  bitter 
tonics,  sometimes  proving  emetic  and  diaphoretic,  if  taken  infused 
in  large  quantities  of  warm  water.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
Eupatorium,  boneset,  and  most  of  the  other  ten  thousand  plants 
of  this  order. 

(195.)  LoBELiACE^. — The  few  plants  constituting  this  order 
have  acro-narcotic  properties  very  similar  to  those  of  ordinary 
tobacco.  Like  other  plants  with  such  properties,  they  are  me- 
dicinal, but  require  to  be  used  with  great  caution. 

Lobelia  infiata,  Indian  tobacco,  was  the  principal  medicine  of  the 
celebrated  Samuel  Thomson.  He  attributed  to  it  almost  miracu- 
lous powers.  It  was  said  to  evacuate  bile  and  other  crudities 
from  the  stomach  without  causing  nausea  or  disturbing  whole- 
some food,  or  interfering  in  any  way  with  healthy  digestion.  But 
since  the  decease  of  this  celebrated  individual,  and  his  equally 


136  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  199. 

celebrated  botanic  system  of  medicine,  tliis  plant  has  fallen  into 
disuse.  It  is  occasionally  recommended  to  be  smoked  in  a  pipe 
in  cases  of  asthma. 

(196.)  Ertcace.e — Heaths. — This  extensive  fiimily  of  plants 
furnishes  a  great  variety  of  edible  berries — cranberries,  whortle- 
berries, blueberries,  bilberries,  deerberries,  bearberries,  etc.  Some 
of  the  berries  and  plants  are  not  mucli  esteemed,  except  as  flavor- 
ing ingredients.  Such  are  the  Gaulthcria  jit'ocumhcns,  partridge- 
berry,  and  Pyrola  umbeUata.  The  plants  of  this  family  have 
generally  diuretic  and  astringent  properties.  Two  genera,  the 
rhododendrons  and  the  kalniias,  have  narcotic  poisonous  proper- 
ties. The  Kalmla  angudifoUa,  and  other  species,  have  proved 
fatal  to  sheep,  and  they  appear  not  t<>  have  any  instinctive  dis- 
position to  shun  this  poison.  The  berries  are  sometimes  eaten  by 
the  ruffed  grouse,  partridge  pheasant,  when  the  ground  is  covered 
with  snow,  and  the  flesh  of  the  birds  is  thus  rendered  poisonous. 

(197.)  The  Oxi/Goccus  macrocarpa,  cranberry,  as  it  is  capable 
of  easy  preservation  through  the  winter,  is,  perhaps,  the  most 
important  of  our  small  fruits. 

(198.)  ScROPHULAEiACEiE — Mullcui  Family. — This  important 
family  produces  some  ornamental  flowers,  without  fragrance. 
They  are  bitter  and  disgusting  to  the  taste,  many  of  them  are 
narcotic  poisons,  and  all  suspicious.  Some  of  them  turn  black  in 
drying. 

The  Digitalis  purpurea,  foxglove,  the  niost  important  plant  of 
the  order,  is  a  valuable  medicine.  But  it  possesses  dangerous 
properties,  on  acconnt  of  which  it  must  be  used  with  great  cau- 
tion. The  other  species  of  digitalis  possess  similar  properties. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  most  of  the  plants  of  the  order,  though 
they  are  generally  less  active.     They  should  be  avoided. 

The  mullein,  Vcrbascum  thapsus,  has  the  narcotic  and  sedative 
properties  in  so  moderate  a  degree  that  the  leaves  are  safely  ap- 
plied to  painful  tumors  as  a  poultice. 

(199.)  Labiatje  —  Mints. — This  striking  family  of  plants, 
embracing  more  than  two  thousand  species,  has  many  properties 
in  common  with  the  Cruciferas.  They  are  all  pervaded  by  a 
pleasant,  aromatic,  volatile  oil,  which  differs  somewhat  in  each 
j)lant,  and  gives  to  them  their  characteristic  properties.     There  is 


§  201.  ]  BOTANY.  137 

not  one  plant  of  tliis  extensive  order  which  is  in  any  way  poi- 
sonous. 

(200.)  Coxvoi.vuLACE.E  —  3Iomhi(/-</l()ri('s.  —  The  various 
plants  of  this  order  are  pervaded  by  an  acrid  juice,  which,  in 
many  instances,  renders  them  very  actively  cathartic.  This  prop- 
erty depends  on  a  resinous  material,  which  appears  to  be  peculiar 
in  each  species.  The  farinaceous  matter  of  the  root  of  one  or 
more  species,  sweet  potato,  is  so  little  infected  with  this  active 
material  as  to  be  excellent  food.  Dangerously  active  properties 
are  to  be  suspected  in  any  unknown  plant  of  this  order. 

The  Convolvulus  scnmmonium  supplies  the  dangerously  active 
scammony  of  the  shops.  Ipoma'a  jalapa  jiroduces  the  well-known 
jalap.  Ipomoea  pandurata,  wild  sweet  potato,  has  similar  proper- 
ties. Ipomcea  batatas,  Batata  cdulis,  is  the  cultivated  sweet  potato, 
of  which  there  are  about  twenty  good  varieties  cultivated,  and 
many  more  bad  ones. 

(201 .)  SoLAXACE.i: — The  Potato  Family, — This  order,  contain- 
ing more  than  one  thousand  species,  is  one  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance, as  it  contains  some  species  which  produce  a  large  por- 
tion of  our  best  food  ;  others  supplying  im|X)rtant  medicines,  and 
still  others  which  are  most  deadly  poisons.  The  close  resemblance 
of  plants  possessing  such  various  properties  has  led  to  frequent 
fatal  accidents.  The  poisonous  properties  depend  on  the  presence 
of  vegetable  alkaloids,  each  peculiar  to  its  particular  class  of 
plants,  Solama,  Atropna,  Daturia,  Hyoscyamia,  JSlcotina,  etc. 
These  alkaloids  are  of  such  delicate  organization  that  they  are 
readily  destroyed  by  warmth,  moisture,  light,  etc.  It  seems  im- 
possible to  jJi'cpare  extracts  of  hyoscyamus,  belladonna,  or  stra- 
monium of  any  reliable  strength,  because  the  active  principle  is 
mostly  destroyed  by  the  necessary  application  of  heat.  In  the 
same  way  these  plants  lose  much  of  their  activity  by  mere 
drjnng,  and  nearly  all  of  it  by  being  kept  long  in  a  dry  state. 
Some  of  the  fruits,  when  green,  are  deadly  poison,  which,  when 
fully  ripened  in  the  sun  or  cooked,  are  wholesome  and  pleasant 
food. 

These  jslants  are  so  dangerously  poisonous  that  any  unknown 
plant  with  the  leading  characters  of  the  order — monopetalous, 
pentandrous,  light  blue,  white  and  blue,  or  lurid  flowers — should 
be  avoided  with  the  greatest  degree  of  suspicious  caution. 


138  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  204. 

(202.)  The  common  tomato,  Lycopersieum  esculentum,  is  a 
valuable  fruit,  in  no  way  poisonous  or  injurious  to  health,  even 
when  eaten  green  or  in  almost  any  possible  degree  of  excess. 
Preserved  in  air-tight  cans,  it  forms  one  of  our  most  valuable  re- 
sources for  vegetable  food  through  long  winters  and  during  long 
voyages.  There  are  numerous  other  species  and  varieties  grow- 
ing in  various  parts  of  the  world,  with  similar  properties.  They 
may  any  of  them  be  appropriated  for  food  with  confidence. 

Red  pepper,  Capsicum  annuum,  possesses  simply  stimulant 
properties,  void  of  serious  harm. 

The  egg  plant,  3Mongena  esculenta,  SoJanum  esculentum,  is  a 
popular  vegetable,  never  eaten  except  Avhen  cooked,  from  which, 
so  far  as  we  know,  no  harm  has  ever  resulted. 

The  common  potato,  Solanum  tuberosum.,  in  its  abundant  sup- 
ply of  farinaceous  food,  comes  next  in  importance  to  rice  and 
wheat.  The  plant  and  even  the  tubers  contain  a  portion  of  the 
poisonous  solania ;  but  not  enough  to  do  harm  in  any  quantity 
which  could  possibly  be  eaten.  By  cooking  this  is  eifectually  de- 
stroyed. Practically,  raw  potatoes  have  been  found  the  most 
effectual  remedy  for  scorbutus. 

Bittersweet,  woody  nightshade,  Solanum  dulcamara,  is  doubt- 
less poisonous,  though  not  very  actively  so.  Professor  Dungli- 
son,  says :  "  He  has  seen  it  chewed  by  b(ws  in  large  quantities, 
and  has  chewed  it  himself  when  a  boy,  without  observing  any 
effect  from  it,  except  what  was  caused  by  its  saccharine  and 
gummy  matter.  The  decoction,  extract,  and  fruit  have  all  been 
given  in  large  quantities,  with  no  effect."  We  remember  to  have 
read  the  account  of  a  very  different  case  which  occurred  to  Dr. 
Isaac  Parrish :  "  The  little  patient  died  with  symptoms  of  nar- 
cotic poisoning,  which  it  was  impossible  to  account  for  till  an  ex- 
amination discovered  the  stomach  full  of  the  berries  of  this 
plant." 

(203.)  Black  nightshade,  Solanum  nigrum,  has  a  bad  reputa- 
tion, which  it  probably  deserves.  It  is  an  ugly  weed,  with  a  re- 
pulsive smell,  which  probably  prevents  accidents,  for  otherwise 
its  black  berries  might  thoughtlessly  he  eaten.  The  Solanum 
ptseudocapskum,  Jerusalem  cherry,  has  similar  and  more  active 
jM'operties.     It  has  a  scarlet  berry. 

(204.)  Atropa  belladonna,  deadly  nightshade,  is  one  of  the  most 


§  204.  ] 


BOTANY. 


139 


active  of  acro-narcotic  poisons,  but,  like  tlic  rest,  its  suspicious 
appearance  and  bad  smell  are  such  that  we  rarely  hear  of  any 
accident  from  it. 

The  same  remarks  are  applicable  to  henbane,  Hyoscyamus  niger, 
and  thornapple,  or  Jamestown  weed,  Datura  stramonium.  This 
last  is,  however,  a  very  common  weed,  and  accidental  poisoning 
sometimes  occurs  from  children  swallowing  the  seeds. 


Fig.  18. 


Solanum,  Bachelor's  Pear. 

Tobacco,  Nicotiana  tabacum,  Nicotiana  rustica,  and  other 
species,  is  poisonous  like  the  others,  its  repulsive  flavor  prevent- 
ing its  use  except  by  those  who  have  other  inducements  besides 
their  own  senses.  It  is  curious  that  the  system  becomes  rapidly 
accustomed  to  this  plant,  so  that  it  may  be  used  in  large  quanti- 
ties, without  injury  so  far  as  concerns  acute  poisoning,  whatever 
may  ultimately  be  its  effects,  moral  or  physical,  on  the  indi- 
vidual. 

The  ground  cherry,  Physalis  viscosa,  is  occasionally  eaten,  and 
so  far  as  we  know  without  harm.  The  various  species  of  phy- 
salis, called  pops,  winter  cherries,  alkekengis,  etc.,  have  yellow 
flowers,  and  thus  Avant  one  of  the  suspicious  characters  which  we 


140  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  208. 

have  mentioned  as  belonging  to  most  of  the  poisonous  plants  of 
this  order. 

There  arc  numerous  other  species  of  solanaceous  plants,  which, 
from  the  tempting  appearance  of  their  fruit  when  separated  from 
the  plant,  have  been  tlie  cause  of  serious  accidents.  Some  of 
them  are  named  morellos  from  their  resemblance  to  dark-colored 
cherries.  It  is  well  to  be  very  shy  of  these  morellos.  One  of 
them,  called  bachelor's  pear,  a  dangerous  poison,  has  somewhat 
the  form  and  size  of  a  pear,  attached  to  the  stem  by  the  larger 
end.  But  we  have  neitlier  the  space,  inclination,  nor  means  of 
enumerating  all  the  Solanaccfe.  They  are  to  be  treated  with 
suspicion  and  avoided  till  we  receive  positive  evidence  of  their 
innocence.  And  we  are  even  to  receive  the  evidence  in  their 
favor  with  the  caution,  that  some  of  them  are  eatable  when  well 
cooked,  which  are  dangerous  otherwise. 

APETALOUS    EXOGENS. 

(205.)  Laueace^ — Laurels. — The  plants  of  this  order  are 
pervaded  by  a  stimulant  aromatic  oil.  They  furnish  us  with 
cinnamon  and  camphor,  and  our  own  Laurus  sassafras  has  the 
same  general  properties. 

A  delicious  fruit,  avigato,  avocado,  avicato,  or  alligator  pear,  is 
the  fruit  of  the  Persea  gratissima,  Laurus  per  sea,  of  the  AYest  Indies. 

(206.)  EuPHORBiACEiE — Spurges. — This  family  of  plants,  em- 
bracing about  twenty-five  hundred  species,  recpiires  special  atten- 
tion on  account  of  the  serious  accidents  constantly  occurring  with 
them.  They  are  pervaded  by  an  acrid  poisonous  matter,  which 
resides  principally  in  the  milky  juice  and  about  the  seeds.  The 
fresh  seeds  mostly  have  a  pleasant  flavor,  not  unlike  the  flavor  of 
walnuts.  The  consequences,  however,  of  eating  them  are  terrifi- 
cally different.  The  poisonous  property  appears  to  be  easily  de- 
.stroyed  by  heat,  in  some  instances,  or  it  may  even  be  washed 
away  in  water,  as  in  the  processes  of  preparing  farina  and  tapioca. 

(207.)  Castor  oil  is  a  product  of  the  Bicinus  eommuuis,  and 
when  properly  prepared  is  one  of  the  mildest  of  the  medicines  of 
the  class  to  which  it  belongs.  It  is  even  used  in  small  quantities 
as  a  salad  oil,  without  unplcjisant  results,  its  flavor  not  differing 
materially  from  that  of  olive  oil. 

(208.)  Croton  oil  is  derived  from  Crohn  tUjUum,  Croton  pa- 


^ 


205.  AVIGATO 

Thos    Smolair*  SoR.Litli 


§  209.  ] 


BOTANY. 


141 


vayia,  and  perliaps  other  species.  It  possesses  a  dangerons  degree 
of  activity,  and  requires  to  be  used  with  great  care  to  avoid  bad 
consequences. 

(209.)  Jatropha  curm.i  and  some  other  species  are  cultivated 
for  their  oil,  which  is  burned  in  lamps.  The  following  accident 
wit-h  this  plant  has  been  recorded:  "Two  men  of  the  United 
States  schooner  Tanev,  being  on  shore  at  Porto  Praya,  Cape  de 


Fig.  19. 


Pvicinus  communis. 


Verde  Islands,  tasted  the  seeds  of  the  Jatropha  curcas,  which 
grows  abundantly  on  these  islands,  and  finding  them  pleasant,  ate 
of  them  :  one  to  the  extent  of  a  handful,  the  other  being  satisfied 
with  three  or  four  seeds.  In  both  cases  vomiting  and  purging  of 
a  violent  character  came  on  in  the  course  of  an  hour,  and  in  the 
case  of  the  man  who  ate  but  few  the  eifect  wxnt  no  further.  In 
the  other  case  alarming  symptoms  supervened  •  the  muscles  of 
the  extremities  W' ere  contracted  by  violent  spasms ;  the  patient 
was  affected  with  dizziness,  vertigo,  and  great  restlessness ;  the 
respiration  was  quick  and  panting ;  the  skin  became  cold  and 
moist;  and  the  pulse  small,  thready,  and  intermittent.  The 
heart's  action  was  very  irregular,  and  so  weak  that  its  impulse 


142 


NAVAL   HYGIENE. 


[  §  209. 


could  with  great  difficulty  be  perceived.  The.se  alarmiug  symptoms 
continued  for  several  hours.  After  about  five  hours  of  assiduous 
attention,  reaction  occurred  and  he  fell  asleep.  The  next  morning 
he  was  nearly  well.  The  seeds  were  ripe  and  of  the  kind  used 
by  the  inhabitants  as  an  active  purgative." — (Farqaharson.) 

There  are  probably  twenty  other  species  of  physic  nut  equally 
dangerous. 

The  Jatropha  manihot,  nianioca,  cassava  plant,  has  a  large, 
starchy  root,  which  is  variously  manufactured  into  food  by  grat- 
ing, washing  in  water,  and  parching,  the  product  being  variously 


Fig.  20. 


Jatropha  manihot. 

named  tapioca,  cassava,  or  farina,  according  to  the  form  produced 
by  variations  in  the  process.  The  juice  of  this  root,  which  exudes 
in  the  process  of  grating,  is  a  very  active  irritant  poison,  but  with 
a  very  small  amount  of  careless  washing  the  resulting  farina  is 
quite  harmless.  It  is  easy  to  see  how  the  sad  accidents  are  con- 
stantly happening  with  this  root.     A  cook  unacquainted  with  its 


§  210.  ] 


BOTANY. 


143 


poisonous  properties,  and  seeing  it  eaten,  is  tempted,  in  tlie  ab- 
sence of  potatoes,  to  put  some  of  this  nice-looking  farinaceous 
root  into  his  soup,  and  the  result  is  that  his  whole  mess  of  soup  is 
rendered  more  or  less  poisonous. 

(210.)  The  celebrated  manganiUa  of  Spanish  America,  H'tppo- 
taane  mancinella,  is  perhaps  the  most  poisonous  tree  of  this  order. 


Fig.  21. 


Hippomane  mancinella. 


The  juice  is  used  by  savages  to  poison  their  arrows.  "  If  some 
of  the  crude  milky  juice  falls  upon  even  a  horse,  the  hair  of  the 
part  soon  falls  oft*  and  the  skin  rises  up  in  blisters,  which  will  re- 
quire a  long  time  to  heal.  It  has  been  observed  that  fish,  the 
barracuta  and  others,  which  eat  the  fruit  dropped  casually  into 
the  sea,  are  often  found  dead  in  the  swash  water,  and  if  taken 
alive  and  eaten  they  often  prove  poisonous.  Even  the  large 
white  crab  that  burrows  in  the  sand,  if  near  these  trees,  is  not  to 
be  made  use  of  as  food.  Formerly  no  one  dared  to  cut  down  one 
of  those  trees  without  having  first  made  a  large  fire  round  them 


144 


J^AVAL    HYGIENE. 


[    §  210. 


in  order  to  burn  the  l^ark  and  dry  up  the  juice,  which  flies  from 
them  in  cutting ;  but  now  naked  negroes  venture  to  cut  them 
down  green,  only  using  the  caution  of  first  rubbing  their  bodies 
Avith  lime-juice,  which  prevents  the  juice  from  corroding  or  ul- 
cerating the  skin.  Bruising  the  tender  leaves  and  boughs  in  fish- 
ponds has  often  been  a  roguish  practice  of  taking  and  destroying 
fish,  for  the  fish  very  soon  after  become  stu])id  and  float  Avith 
their  bellies  upward.  The  pulp  of  the  manchinoel  fruit  does  not 
exceed  the  seventh  of  an  inch  thick,  inclosing  a  hard  strong  shell, 
which  contains  the  seeds.  The  juice  of  the  fruit  is  poisonous  like 
that  of  the  leaves." — (IlKrjJics.) 

The  term  manyanilla,  diminutive  of  manyana,  an  apple,  is 
probably  applied  to  various  trees  bearing  small  poisonous  fruits 
of  similar  appearance. 


Fig.  22. 


Ilura  crepitans. 


The  sand-box  tree  {Hura  brasiliensis)  is  quite  a  large  tree  of 
thife  family,  the  leaves  and  other  parts  of  which  exude,  when 


§  213.  ] 


BOTANY. 


145 


wounded,  a  very  poisonous  milky  juice,  of  wliieli  various  stories 
are  told,  rivalling  those  we  hear  of  the  manyanilla  itself. 

"  These  trees  are  called  sand-boxes,  from  the  use  that  is  made 
of  their  fruit  to  that  purpose." — {IIi((jhcs.) 

GYMXOSPERM   EXOGENS. 

(211.)  Conifers. — The  pines,  cedars,  junipers,  etc.,  are  charged 
wuth  resinous  juice.  They  supply  an  immense  amount  of  valu- 
able timber,  but  nothing  more  poisonous  than  turpentine  and 
juniper  berries. 

(212.)  Cycadace.^; — Sago  P/nnts. — The  Ci/cas  revohda  and 
other  species  supply  in  their  stalks  a  large  quantity  of  starchy 
material  devoid  of  any  active  property. 

"Lamia  integrvfoUa  and  other  species  are  the  source  of  the 
Florida  arrowroot." — ( Carson.) 


Fig.  23. 


SPADICEOUS    ENDOGENS. 

(213.)  Palmace^. — The  family  of  palms  are  replete  with 
useful  properties.  They  afford  abund- 
ant food  and  shelter  to  man  in  all  trop- 
ical climates.  Some  of  them  aiford 
astringent  extracts,  but  there  is  not  one 
of  them  possessed  of  any  dangerous 
property. 

Aeace^  —  Indian  Turnips.  —  The 
plants  of  this  family  are  important  on 
account  of  their  large  starchy  roots, 
corms.  The  few  species  which  grow  in 
temperate  climates  are  of  little  account, 
but  in  tropical  regions  they  form  a  large 
portion  of  the  farinaceous  food  of  the 
inhabitants.  In  the  islands  of  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean  they  are  extensively  culti- 
vated, supplying  there  the  place  of  rice, 
wdieat,  and  potatoes.  They  are  all  per- 
vaded by  an  acrid  juice,  which  in  many  cases  is  found  so  concen- 
trated as  to  act  as  an  irritant  poison.  This  irritating  or  poison- 
ous property  is  readily  destroyed  by  drying  or  cooking.     They 

10 


Cero.xylon  andieola. 


146 


NAVAL    HYGIENE. 


[§213. 


are  usually  cooked  by  boiliug,  and  the  water  thrown  away  con- 
tains much  of  the  poisonous  matter  in  solution.  Dreadful  acxa- 
dents  haye  happened  by  putting  this  yegetable  into  soup.  Every 
strange  plant  with  acrid  taste,  which  bears  its  flowers  on  a  simple 
spadix,  should  be  avoided  as  a  poison ;  <and  such  plants  as  are 
known  should  be  cooked  with  proper  care,  keeping  in  view  these 
dangerous  properties.  Several  genera,  many  species,  and  innu- 
merable varieties  are  cultivated  for  food.     In  Oceanica  they  are 


Fig.  24. 


Anuu  triphylluin. 


called  taro,  kalo,  alo,  etc.,  and  in  the  ^ycst  Indies,  eddos  or  cddas; 
in  Brazil  they  are  called  ynhames  and  taiovos.  The  great  dan- 
ger from  them  is,  that  a  cook,  not  understanding  their  properties, 
may  put  really  good  vegetables,  which  should  not  be  so  cooked, 
into  his  soup. 


§215.] 


BOTANY. 


147 


PETALOID  ENDOGENS. 

(214.)  BEOMELiACEiE  —  Phcapplc  Famih/.  —  The  pineapple, 
whieh  is  the  imjiortant  plant  of  this  family,  is,  in  places  where  it 
abounds,  generally  regarded  with  disfavor;  and  strangers  are 
generally  cautioned  against  its  use.  We  think  it  is  merely  excess 
that  is  to  be  guarded  against.  Seamen  arriving  in  a  port  where 
this  fruit  is  abundant,  after  perhaps  thirty  days'  privation  of 
everything  like  fresh  fruit,  have  doubtless  often  injured  them- 
selves very  much  by  eating  too  many  pineapples  ;  and  hence  we 
infer  a  good  reason  for  this  caution. 

(215.)  DioscoREACE^ — Yams. — Several  species  and  numer- 
ous varieties  of  yams  are  cultivated  in  different  countries.     They 


Dioscorea  alata — Yam. 


are  probably  capable  of  as  extensive  use  as  the  common  potato. 
The  good  varieties  are  as  good  as  potatoes,  and  the  poor  varieties 
are  no  worse  than  poor  potatoes.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  popular 
misapprehension  in  regard  to  the  properties  of  this  vegetable^ 


148  NAVAL   HYGIENE.  [  §  217. 

Some  persons  having  eaten  poor  varieties,  badly  cooked,  have 
propagated  the  notion  that  none  of  them  are  good.  Some  infe- 
rior varieties  of  sweet  potato  have  been  cultivated  and  used  un- 
der this  name,  and  have  thus  assisted  in  spreading  the  prejudice. 
They  have  one  great  advantage  over  potatoes,  as  they  are  easily 
preserved  for  a  long  time  on  shipboard  in  tropical  climates. 

There  is  some  confusion  in  the  use  of  the  name  of  this  valu- 
able vegetable.  The  ynham^  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  is  not  a  yam  at 
all,  but  the  enormous  corm  of  a  caladium.  The  proper  yam  at 
this  place  is  called  carai.  Some  varieties  of  sweet  potato,  and 
even  common  ])otato,  and  probal)ly  other  tubers,  have  been  sold 
for  yams.  So  far  as  we  know,  all  the  Dloscoreaccce  are  without 
active  properties,  though  one  of  them  is  named  Dioscorea  demona, 
from  which  we  infer  that  there  is  something  unpleasant  about  it. 
I  once  attempted  to  cultivate  the  yam  in  our  climate,  but  prob- 
ably the  summer  is  too  short  to  ripen  the  tubers  till  suitable 
varieties  are  produced. 

(216.)  LiLiACE^. — The  lilies  are  more  noted  for  their  beau- 
tiful flowers  than  for  any  other  property.  Some  of  them,  as 
asparagus  and  onions,  aiford  nutritious  articles  of  diet. 

The  squill,  Scilla  maritima,  has  more  active  properties  than  any 
-other  species,  and  this  can  hardly  be  considered  dangerous. 

There  is  on  record  a  curious  case  of  poisoning  from  the  pollen 
of  a  common  tiger  lily.  A  little  girl,  four  years  old,  picked  an 
anther  from  a  tiger  lily  and  placed  it  in  her  nose.  The  con- 
sequences were  great  irritation  of  the  part,  with  profuse  discharge 
■of  yellow  mucus,  followed  by  vomiting,  first,  of  the  ordinary 
contents  of  the  stomach,  and  afterward  of  mucus,  colored  the 
:same  as  that  from  the  nose.  Drowsiness  and  other  symptoms 
followed,  with  death  in  about  sixty  hours  from  the  time  of  the 
•accident. — {Am.  Jour.  Med.  Sci.,  vol.  xlv,  271.) 

(217.)  Melanthace^. — This  family  is  characterized  by  pos- 
isessing  powerful  narcotic  and  poisonous  properties.  This  is,  per- 
haps, intended  to  be  expressed  by  the  names,  /j.eXa':,  black,  rcre 
Mnim,  truly  black.  These  ])oisonous  properties  are  partly  due 
jx)  the  vegetable  alkaloids,  veratria  and  colchicia. 

Cok'hicfon  (uituninale,  meadow  saffron,  is  an  acro-narcotic  poison, 
which  requires  to  be  handled  with  care.  It  is  observed,  together 
with  otber  plants  of  this  family,  to  lessen  greatly  the  action  of  the 


§  220.  ]  BOTANY.  149 

lieart  and  circulation,  and  it  was  tlionght  that  it  might  he  advan- 
tageously used  in  many  cases  of  inflammatory  disease,  where  hlood- 
letting  would  otherwise  be  called  for.  More  recently,  Vcratrum 
album,  white  hellebore  of  Europe,  andVercdmm  virkJc,  American 
white  hellebore,  have  been  very  earnestly  recommended  A\'ith  the 
same  views.  A  curious  and  disagreeable  property  of  veratrum  is 
the  violent  sneezing  which  its  powder  causes. 

GLUMACEOUS    ENDOGENS. 

(218.)  Grasses. — This  family  of  plants,  containing  nearly  four 
thousand  known  species,  furnishes  more  food  to  men  and  beasts 
than  all  the  rest  of  the  vegetable  world  combined.  Its  nutritive 
properties  exist,  in  greater  or  less  degrees,  both  in  the  herbage  and 
in  the  farinaceous  seed.  Sugar  is  a  frequent  constituent,  and  is 
particularly  abundant  in  sugar  cane,  sorghum,  and  Indian  corn. 
There  is,  probably,  no  poisonous  plant  in  this  entire  family ; 
thougji  comnKHi  rye,  Seeale  ccrcale,  is  subject  to  a  disease  which 
rendei-s  the  infected  seed  poisonous.  And  the  Lolium  temulentum, 
darnel,  has  occasionally  been  injurious  to  cattle,  probably  from  a 
similar  cause.  Possibly  these  cases  of  poisoning  may  have  been 
caused  by  other  weeds  mingled  with  the  grass. 

CRYPTOGAMIA. 

(219.)  Xearly  all  the  innumerable  plants  belonging  to  the 
o-rand  division  of  flowerless  plants  are  without  active  or  otherwise 
important  properties.  A  few  of  the  ferns  have  anthelmintic 
properties. 

The  fungi,  mushrooms,  and  toadstools,  however,  are  dangerous 
substances,  of  Avhich  it  is  necessary  to  be  suspicious.  The  only 
species  that  we  know  of  which  can  always  be  trusted  are  the 
truffle  of  the  Old  World,  and  the  common  white  mushroom  with 
pink  gills,  when  growing  in  open  fields.  All  others,  and  espe- 
cially such  as  grow  in  shady  places,  are  to  be  carefully  avoided. 

(220.)  In  conclusion  we  may  state,  as  the  rule,  that  the  actively 
poisonous  plants  have  (usually)  repulsive  properties  about  them, 
so  that  there  is  very  little  danger  from  them.  There  are,  how- 
ever, four  families  of  plants  from  which  accidents  have  occurred 
and  are  likely  hereafter  to  occur,  either  from  poisonous  matter 


150  NAVAL   HYGIENE.  [  §  220. 

naturally  belonging  to  plants  actually  in  use  as  food,  Init  from 
Mliich  the  poison  is  usually  roniovod  or  destroyed  by  cooking ;  or 
from  poisonous  plants  bearing  fruit  witli  a  close  resemblance  to 
ordinary  good  esculent  vegetables ;  or  from  the  pleasant  taste  of 
the  poisonous  seeds  of  one  family.  Plants  of  the  following  four 
families  have  proved  fatal  from  these  causes.  Their  properties 
should,  therefore,  be  understood,  and  enough  of  their  general 
appearance  and  botanical  characters  to  recognize  them : 

Cucurbitacece,  the  melon  family,  §  188. 

Solanacece,  the  potato  family,  §  201. 

Euphorbiaeece,  spurge  family,  §  206. 

Aracece,  Indian  turnip  family,  §  213. 


CHAPTER   XV  11. 

VEEA    CRUZ LIBERTY   OX   SHORE HABITS. 

Tlie  words  of  King  Lemuel,  the  prophecy  that  his  motlier  taught  him  : 
Give  not  thy  strength  unto  women,  nor  thy  ways  to  that  which  destroyeth 

kings. 

It  is  not  for  kings,  O  Lemuel,  it  is  not  for  kings  to  drink  wine,  nor  for  princes 

strong  drink. — Proverbs  xxxi,  1,  3,  4. 

(221.)  September  17th,  I860.— We  arrived  at  Vera  Cruz, 
INIexioo,  early  in  the  autumn,  the  season  of  fevers  and  other 
sickness.  The  ship  was  accordingly  anchored  at  the  Island  of 
Sacrificios,  three  or  four  miles  distant  from  the  town,  a  situation 
sufficiently  remote  from  the  marshy  land  of  the  country,  and  with 
all  its  prevalent  breezes  from  the  ocean.  By  this  arrangement 
Ave  expected,  with  good  reason,  to  escape  from  all  serious  disease, 
though  there  were  a  number  of  foreign  ships  at  the  same  anchor- 
age with  cases  of  yellow  fever  on  board. 

The  bumboats  were  soon  alongside  prepared  to  sell  fruits,  vege- 
tables, etc.,  of  the  country,  everything  that  they  imagined  the 
sailors  M-anted,  and  would  be  permitted  to  purchase.  Nobody 
seemed  inclined  to  buy  cucumbers,  from  a  well-founded  appre- 
hension that  under  the  circumstances  they  were  unM'holesome. 
It  was  only  necessary  to  suggest  a  little  caution  about  eating  too 
many  oranges  the  first  day,  and  as  there  were  very  few  in  the 
boats,  and  very  dear,  there  was  no  difficulty  in  carrying  out  the 
suggestion.  Free  trade  was  therefore  permitted.  No  harm  what- 
ever, so  far  as  known,  resulted  from  this  permission,  and  the  ar- 
rangement continued  during  our  stay  in  port. 

(222.)  The  seamen  were  frequently  indulged  with  liberty  on 
shore,  mostly  in  the  da>i:ime.  Much  good  and  some  harm  re- 
sulted from  this. 

LIBERTY    ON   SHORE. 

The  bad  habits  of  the  sailor  are  doubtless  those  about  which 


152  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  222. 

King  LeniueFs  motlier  admonl.-lied  liini.  Some  came  on  board 
in  various  degrees  intoxicated ;  some  Avere  infected  with  danger- 
ous diseases;  and  some  had  to  be  carried  on  board.  The  great 
niajority,  however,  escaped  these  misliaps,  conducted  themselves 
properly,  came  on  board  at  the  expiration  of  their  libei-t}-,  and 
received  nothing  but  advantage  from  their  visit.  The  cheerful 
influences  of  these  visits  to  the  shore  are  exceedingly  beneficial  to 
health,  lasting  for  weeks,  and  even  months.  AVe  must  here  re- 
mark the  strong  contrast  between  this  j^icture  and  such  as  would 
have  been  presented  only  a  few  years  sooner  when  flogging  was  a 
recognized  punishment.  Nearly  all  would  have  been  drunk,  many 
diseased,  most  of  them  ragged  and  dirty,  some  nearly  naked  by 
swapping  their  clothes  for  rum ;  the  whole  ship  a  sort  of  })ande- 
monium  for  several  days  in  succession.  Officers  would  have  been 
sent  to  wander  about  the  worst  places  in  search  of  liberty  men  to  be 
carried  on  board  drunk ;  instances  occurring  of  officers  assaulted, 
beaten,  and  perhaps  nuirdered  A\hi]e  employed  in  this  duty.  The 
whole  business  was  so  hateful  to  the  officers  that  they  would  not  ap- 
prove of  liberty  for  the  crew  more  than  once  in  six  months,  and 
even  contrived  excuses,  emergencies  of  service,  etc.,  to  protract  the 
interval  to  a  whole  year ;  so  that  two  occasions  of  general  liberty 
would  generally  suffice  for  a  cruise  of  three  years.  What  a  splendid 
chance  to  see  foreign  countries  !  This  has  gradually  changed,  and 
is  still  changing  more  rapidly  for  the  better.  It  is  no  longer  con- 
sidered particularly  heroic  to  get  drunk  and  use  disgraceful  lan- 
guage, to  assault  an  officer,  and  perhaps  try  to  murder  him,  and 
to  stand  up  "  like  a  man  "  when  tied  up  to  settle  the  account. 

The  men  of  their  own  accord  return  to  the  ship  at  the  proper 
time,  and  the  few  who  fail  to  return  are  arrested  and  brought  on 
board  by  the  local  police.  Many  of  them  visit  the  shore  about 
once  a  week,  permission  depending  very  much  on  the  conduct  of 
the  individual  during  previous  visits.  It  occasionally  becomes  a 
question  ^^dlether  the  surgeon  will  recommend  certain  men  to  go 
on  shore,  and  he  is  particularly  hard  to  convince  that  getting 
drunk  or  other  bad  conduct  is  in  any  way  beneficial  to  health. 
The  const^uit  ]iressure  of  these  influences  is  ra})idly  ])ringing  our 
sailors  to  conduct  themselves  much  more  like  oentlenien  during; 
their  visits  to  the  shore  in  foreign  countries.  Very  nmch  remains 
to  be  done.     Offic(n"s  do  not  always  fully  appreciate  these  influ- 


§  223.  ]  HABITS.  153 

eucet!;  the  record  of  conduct  may  be  written  by  an  unfaithful 
person,  and  very  gross  fauks  overlooked.  These  difficulties 
must  always  exist  in  some  degree. 

There  are  other  influences  at  work  beneficially  influencing  the 
character  of  the  sailor.  The  most  important  of  these  is  the 
"  honorable  discharge,"  which  is  given  at  the  expiration  of  the 
enlistment.  It  confers  such  advantages  that  all  desire  to  possess 
it,  and  it  cannot  be  given  at  any  time  or  withheld  capriciously, 
but  the  propriety  of  its  being  given  to  each  particular  man  is  a 
question  open  for  decision  till  the  termination  of  the  cruise.  The 
few  who  are  so  indifferent  as  to  fiiil  to  obtain  it  have  great  diffi- 
culty in  re-enlisting,  as  the  rendezvous  is  often  closed  agiiinst  all 
who  do  not  possess  it,  and  a  nearly  insuperable  obstacle  is  raised 
against  their  obtaining  petty  officers'  positions. 

(223.)  But  the  sailor  is  not  altogether  bad.  If  we  expose  his 
faults,  which  indeed  are  apparent  enough,  let  us  consider  the  cir- 
cumstances of  his  life,  which  have  deprived  him  in  some  degree 
of  the  habit  of  self-control,  and  give  him  some  credit  for  such 
virtues  as  he  actually  possesses.  His  life  is  a  life  of  contrasts. 
His  intemperance  is  partly  the  consequence  of  long  periods  of 
enforced  abstinence.  His  life  of  privation  seems  to  relieve  him 
so  much  from  the  necessity  of  self-control  that  he  loses  all  power 
to  resist  temptation.  After  long  periods  of  monotonous  and  un- 
savory food,  he  suddenly  has  spread  before  him  a  profuse  feast. 
There  is  so  little  pleasure  in  his  way  that  he  denies  himself  no 
indulgence.  His  life  brings  all  the  passions  into  vivid  contrast ; 
hope  immediately  succeeding  to  despair ;  excessive  labor  to  idle- 
ness ;  sadness  to  joy ;  in  fact,  pleasure  to  pain,  and  pain  to  pleas- 
ure, in  every  imaginable  form.  His  impious  swearing  conceals  a 
relioious  sentiment  not  much  removed  from  suiierstition.  He  is 
unstable  as  the  sea.  He  is  the  creature  of  impulse,  and  habitually 
of  generous  impulses.  He  is  occasionally  entirely  forgetful  of 
self  in  his  generous  impulses  to  serve  others.  We  may  relate  a 
characteristic  incident.  Shortly  after  the  Mexican  war,  1848,  one 
of  our  men,  crossing  the  Rocky  ISIountains  from  California,  sepa- 
rated somewhat  from  his  party.  Suddenly  a  stranger  running 
came  up  and  begged  to  be  taken  on  his  horse,  as  he  was  out  of 
breath,  and  the  Indians  after  him  but  a  short  distance  behind  the 
liill,  and  they  would  kill  him.     Ned  suggested  that  the  horse 


154  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  223. 

could  not  caiTY  them  hoth  very  fost ;  the  Indians  miglit  catcli 
them  both.  He  begged  for  the  sake  of  his  Avife  and  children ; 
for  himself  he  did  not  much  care,  but  his  poor  wife  !  his  helpless 
children  !  "  Well,  I  have  no  wife  or  children,  and  am  not  out  of 
breath,"  says  he,  and  dismounting  he  induced  the  stranger  to 
save  himself  with  the  horse.  Meanwhile  Xed,  quietly  concealed 
among  the  bushes,  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the  Indians  fully 
occupied  with  their  vexation  as  the  horse  travelled  off.  He 
watched  his  opportunity  and  made  his  way  to  the  camp  by  a  cir- 
cuitous route,  and  had  the  satisfaction  as  he  came  in  on  foot  to 
hear  that  the  stranger  had  arrived  an  hour  previously  on  horse- 
back. ^Yith  most  men  such  forgetfulness  of  self  to  serve  others 
could  only  be  inspired  by  the  most  earnest  sentiment  of  duty, 
and  would  be  admired  as  an  act  of  exalted  heroism ;  with  the 
sailor  it  is  a  mere  matter  of  generous  impulse,  nothing  more. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 


VENTILATION CLEANING. 


(224.)  Though  the  anchorage  at  Sacrificios  is  fully  exposed 
to  a  breeze  from  tlie  ocean,  in  nearly  every  direction,  the  calm 
and  -warm  weather  had  such  influence  that  the  subject  of  ventila- 
tion had  to  be  much  and  seriously  thought  of. 

AVe  need  not  much  insist  on  the  general  importance  of  ventila- 
tion, as  this  is  generally  conceded ;  but  there  are  some  parts  of 
its  mechanism  which  we  may  advantageously  study.  If  we  no- 
"  tice  the  process  of  vitiation  of  the  atmosphere  in  a  close  apart- 
ment, by  a  person  breath- 
ing, we  observe  the  air  ^^'^-  '^^■ 
expired  from  the  lungs 
deprived  of  a  portion  of 
its  oxygen  and  charged 
with  carbonic  acid,  which, 
being  warmer  than  the 
rest  of  the  atmosphere, 
ascends  to  the  ceiling; 
another  expiration  sends 
another  portion  of  impure 
air  in  the  same  direction ; 
and  thus  the  process  goes 
on,  continuously  increas- 
ing the  volume  of  con- 
taminated   air    from    the 

ceiling  downward.  Gradually  a  portion  of  this  impure  air,  in 
contact  with  the  walls  and  ceiling,  is  cooled,  and,  being  charged 
with  carbonic  acid,  a  heavy  gas,  it  descends  to  the  floor;  and 
thus  we  have  two  reservoirs  of  impure  air,  one  above  and  the 
other  below.  The  atmosphere  is  likewise  deteriorated  by  exha- 
lations from  the  surface  of  the  body,  which,  being  warmed,  as 


Ventilation  by  One  Hatch. 


15G  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  224. 

well  as  rendered  impure,  ascends  in  like  manner  to  the  upper 
part  of  the  room.  This  process  continued  would  soon  result  in 
such  deterioration  as  would  be  fatal  to  life. 

We  liave  a  very  simple  modification  of  this  in  the  ordinary 
railway  carriag;e.  The  windows  are  of  plate  glass,  closely  fitted ; 
the  doors  nearly  all  the  time  closed ;  there  are  merely  openings 
in  the  elevated  ridge  of  the  roof.  These  are  the  only  effective 
ventilation  openings.  The  atmosphere  as  used — heated  and  fouled 
by  respiration  and  perspiration,  carbonic  anhydride  and  all — as- 
cends to  the  roof,  to  the  projection  upwards  in  the  roof,  and  is 
freely  exchanged  with  the  external  atmos})liere.  Pure  air  from 
without  enters,  and  in  accordance  with  its  greater  specific  gravity 
descends  for  the  use  of  the  passengers,  without  much  mingling 
with  the  air  already  used  and  escaping.  These  cai*s  for  each 
passenger  have  about  six  square  feet  floor-space,  and  fifty  feet 
cubic  capacity  or  air-space,  as  tight  as  plate  glass  and  polished 
wood  can  make  them,  except  the  openings  in  the  roof;  and  they 
are  well  ventilated.  We  start  in  the  palace  car,  limited  express, 
at  New  York,  in  the  morning ;  we  ride  nearly  all  day,  with 
double  plate  glass  windows  to  keep  out  heat  and  dust  and  noise, 
a  door  hardly  opened  more  than  three  or  four  times  in  the  whole 
journey,  and  we  feel  no  want  of  ventilation.  Or  we  enter  a 
smoking  car,  full  of  men,  all  smoking  like  chimneys ;  the  smoke 
enters  the  air-passages  and  lungs  of  the  smokers,  to  be  brought 
to  about  tlic  same  temperature  of  other  respired  air,  and  to  be 
charged  with  usual  impurities  besides  the  smoke ;  but  it  still 
ascends  to  the  openings  in  the  roof,  to  be  exchanged  for  pure  air. 
There  is  generally  some  smell  of  tobacco  in  the  car,  but  no  smoke 
except  the  small  spires  from  individual  smokers.  Nearly  all  our 
arrangements  for  artificial  ventilation  are  contrived  under  the 
impression  that  there  must  be  a  nearly  uniform  diffusion  of  the 
contaminated  air  through  the  apartment ;  but  this  of  the  railway 
cars  is  based  on  the  reasonable  presumption  that  pure  air  and 
foul  air  each  follows  its  approj^riate  course,  iinder  tlie  impelling 
force  of  gravitation.  If  the  foul  air  were  heavier  than  pure  air, 
it  would  be  necessary  to  have  the  openings  in  the  floor,  as  in  get- 
ting rid  of  water  or  other  heavy  fluid. 

The  atmosphere  has  the  same  properties  on  board  ship  as  in  a 


§  225.  ]  VENTILATION.  157 

railway  car,  anJ  sonic  small  vessels  are  ventilated  l)y  precisely 
the  mechanism  that  we  luive  described.  The  hatchway  of  entrance 
■with  its  continuation,  the  trunk,  corresponds  exactly  in  position 
and  functi(^n  with  the  ventilation  ridge  of  the  car.  These  small 
vessels  with  but  one  deck  are  very  perfectly  ventilated  :  they  only 
require  the  side  openings  of  the  trunk  to  be  partially  closed  so  as 
not  to  iret  too  much  ventilation.  In  larger  vessels  the  same  forces 
operate,  but  apartments  are  divided  and  subdivided  as  the  vessel 
increases  in  size,  till  sometimes  the  matter  becomes  a  little  com- 
plicated. An  air-port  at  the  side  is  a  great  improvement,  ad- 
mitting pure  air  directly  into  the  apartment  without  bringing  it 
so  much  in  contact  with  the  impure,  which  still  continues  to  as- 
cend by  the  hatchway.  With  these  arrangements,  there  is  little 
danger  of  the  air  becoming  seriously  impure  in  cool  weather, 
except  from  perverseness  in  closing  hatches,  or  putting  decaying 
material  in  close  store-rooms,  or  chests,  or  closets. 

(225.)  But  in  very  warm  weather  the  atmosphere  may  be  about 
as  Avarm  as  the  human  body,  so  that  it  cannot  be  made  much 
warmer  by  being  breathed,  and  no  such  movement  of  ventilation 
is  established.  We  then  must  have  another  force.  Wind,  the 
atmosphere  naturally  in  motion,  is  the  great  force  for  this  pur- 
pose, effecting  ventilation,  mostly,  without  either  care  or  con- 
sciousness on  our  part.  A  scarcely  perceptible  breeze  of  one  mile 
an  hour,  entering  an  air-port  of  eight  inches  diameter,  supplies 
more  than  eighteen  hundred  cubic  feet  of  air  per  hour.  Now,  it 
appears  that  a  man,  in  ordinary  health  and  exercise,  breathes 
about  fifteen  cubic  feet  in  the  same  time. — [Dalton.)  His  daily 
supply  would  come  through  the  aperture  in  less  than  twelve 
minutes.  Hence  we  see  that  want  of  air  in  this  sense  is  scarcely 
possible.  But  probably  a  hundred  times  more  air  is  needed  for 
healthy  ventilation  than  is  required  to  supply  oxygen  for  the 
respiratory  process.  The  air  has  other  objects  besides  supplying 
oxygen  for  respiration  and  removing  carbonic  acid.  The  surface 
of  the  body  requires  air  in  motion  to  remove  its  heat  and  exhala- 
tions, which  are  otherwise  retained  in  the  system,  and  become 
directly  and  promptly  poisonous.  This  action  of  the  air  on  the 
skin  seems  hardly  less  important  than  that  on  the  lungs.  The 
exhalations  must  have  sufficient  motion  in  the  air  to  remove  them 
promptly  from  the  apartment  altogether,  or  they  undergo  changes 


158 


XAVAL   HYGIENE. 


[  §  226. 


clothing, 


Fig.  27, 


Mliieh   render    them    dangcroasly   poisonous.      They   adhere   to 
bedding,  and  furniture,  and  in  this  situation  become 

the  poisonous  germs  whicli 
result  in  epidemics  of  typhus, 
and  probably  of  nearly  all 
the  terrible  epidemics  which 
liave  from  time  to  time  de- 
vastated the  world,  including 
plague,  measles,  small-pox, 
dysentery,  erysipelas,  etc.  It 
is  on  this  account,  as  well  as 
our  instinctive  consciousness 
of  its  comfort,  that  we  need 
efficient  ventilation. 

(226.)  Wind  being  the  ef- 
ficient force  of  ventilation,  let 
us  see  how  it  may  be  made 
more  useful.  With  a  single 
hatchway  above,  the  air  pro- 
pelled into  an  apartment  has 
constantly  to  encounter  the 
opposite  current,  Avhich  must 
simultaneously  escape.  As 
a  general  rule,  there  will  be 
found  some  irregular  obstacle 
to  the  motion  of  the  wind  in 
a  direct  line,  so  that  it  is  re- 
flected in  such  a  way  that 
fresh  air  enters  by  one  side 
or  corner  of  the  hatch,  while 
the  impure  air  escapes  by 
another.  Thus,  if  the  hatcli 
be  relatively  large,  and  the 
breeze  fresh,  this  ventilation 
is  sufficient.  An  air-j)ort  in 
the  side  of  the  vessel  is  of 
prodigious  advan- 


Ventilation  of  Sailing  Ships. 


course   a 

tage.    It  is  still  better  if  there  be  two  pretty  large  hatches  at  some 
distance  from  each  other.     The  pressure  of  the  wind  can  rarely 


§  228.  ]  VENTILATION.  159 

be  equal  at  both  of  tliciu,  so  that  if  there  be  anything  of  a  breeze, 
the  air  enters  at  one  hatcli  and  escapes  at  the  other,  thus  flushing 
the  apartment  from  end  to  end  by  a  very  efficient  ventihition. 
This  is  greatly  aided  by  the  sails.  In  sailing  ships,  the  mainsail 
is  oenerallv  so  situated  with  reference  to  the  main-hatch,  that 
there  is  a  torrent  of  air  driven  down  this  hatch  and  up  forward, 
so  long  as  the  mainsail  is  set.  This  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired 
for  this  part  of  the  ship,  at  sea,  with  a  fair  breeze.  In  a  gale  of 
wind,  the  main-spencer,  sometimes  called  the  coffee-cooler,  gives 
more  ventilation  than  is  desired  by  those  whose  apartments  are 
below  this  part  of  the  ship.  In  the  annexed  diagram  the  arrows 
are  designed  to  indicate  the  direction  of  ventilation  currents.  A, 
refers  to  the  berth-deck;  B,  fore-  and  main-hold;  C,  steerage 
ventilated  by  main-spencer;  I),  after-hold  or  spirit-room;  JE, 
situation  of  the  galley ;  F,  mainsail ;   G,  main-spencer. 

(227.)  When  the  ship  is  at  anchor,  an  important  part  of  this 
machinery,  the  sails,  does  us  no  good,  and  it  is  necessary  to  use 
machinery  specially  designed  for  the  purpose.  When  there  is  a 
fair  breeze  a  good  portion  of  every  day,  the  ordinary  wind-sails 
are  sufficient.  If  the  executive  officer  of  the  ship  and  the  sur- 
geon make  frequent  inspections,  and  make  the  condition  of  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  ship  a  frequent  subject  of  conversation,  as  directed 
by  general  orders,  there  are  very  few  occasions  when  this  amount 
of  machinery  is  insufficient.  The  sense  of  smell  affords  us  the 
best  test  of  the  sutficiency  of  the  ventilation  of  any  particular 
apartment.  This  sense,  however,  becomes  readily  blunted  to 
habitual  impressions,  and  the  next  evidence  of  defective  ventila- 
tion is  the  headache,  languor,  and  nausea. 

In  calm,  warm  weather,  if  long  continued,  the  means  already 
indicated  are  quite  insufficient,  especially  for  the  lower  decks  of 
large  ships.  It  has  hence  been  found  that  these  parts  of  the  ship 
are  not  to  be  inhabited  in  warm  climates;  and  it  has  even  been 
noted  that  the  larger  the  ship  the  greater  the  average  mortality 
from  ordinary  diseases,  and  the  greater  the  liability  to  suffer  from 
epidemics.  In  such  situations  -sve  are  obliged  to  use  additional 
means  of  ventilation  or  suffer  distressing  consequences. 

(228.)  Heat  or  fires  may  be  used  in  various  ways  to  create 
ventilating  currents.     The  situation  of  the  galley  in  ships-of-war, 


160 


XAVAL    HYGIENE. 


[  §  228. 


Fig.  28. 


near  the  fore-hatch,  is  an  excellent  arrangement  of  this  kind ; 

since  the  air  which  it  Jieats 
immediately  ascends   and 
escap(^-,  so  as  to  create  a 
current  coinciding  in  di- 
I'cction  with  that  produced 
by  the  force  of  the  wind. 
When  the  galley  is  placed 
1  )elow  in  a  steamer  it  should 
be  in  the  after-part  of  the 
same  deck,  so  that  its  ven- 
tilating current  may  cor- 
respond in  direction  with 
that  produced  by  the  heat 
of  the  engine,  rather  than 
forward,  where  it  would 
oppo.se   or   counteract    it. 
The  heat  of  the  engine- 
room  is,  in  fact,  the  great 
ventilating  force  of  steam- 
ers, so  long  as  there  is  fire 
in  the  furnaces.     The  en- 
tire atmosphere  about  the 
engine,  being  warmed  and 
consequently      expanded, 
ascends  in  obedience  to  its 
diminished  specific  grav- 
ity,   follows    the    smoke- 
stack  upward,    and    pro- 
duces ventilating  currents 
from  all  parts  to  fill  the 
vacuum.     This  ibrce  is  so 
efficient     that    ordinarily 
the  course  of  the  ventilat- 
ing currents,  even  at  the 
ends  of  these  vessels,  is 
towards  the  furnaces,  near 
the  centre ;  the  reverse  of 
The  diagram  is  designed  to  iudi- 


\ 

1 

i  ^^^^ 

\  >v 

^-     ^- 



J  I 


the 


Ventilation  of  Steamships. 

direction  in  .sailing  vessels. 


§  229.  ]  VENTILATION.  161 

catc,  by  its  arrows,  tlic  direction  of  the  various  ventilatiiio;  cur- 
rents in  a  steamer.  A,  berth-tleck ;  B,  main-  and  fore-liold  ;  (/, 
officers'  apartments ;  D,  after-hold ;  E,  situation  of  the  galley ; 
G,  sniokc-stack ;  H,  ventilator.  We  would  suggest  that  the  ven- 
tilation of  steamers  might  be  greatly  improved  by  attention  to 
this  circumstance.  Especially  the  ventilation  of  the  orlop  and 
hold,  bv  making  vertical  ventilating  flues  of  light  boiler-iron, 
near  enough  the  engine  to  be  warmed  by  its  furnaces,  and  com- 
municating below  with  the  orlop  wings  or  other  apartment  to  be 
ventilated.  Such  flues  might  constitute  a  part  of  the  thickness 
of  the  bulkheads,  and  thus  contribute  to  prevent  the  heat  of  the 
engine  from  being  so  much  diffused  through  the  ship,  as  is  the 
case  at  present.  Steamers  at  anchorage  require  the  same  ventila- 
tion machinery  as  sailing  vessels  do. 

(229.)  The  importance  of  this  subject  is  so  universally  con- 
ceded among  reflecting  men,  that  it  has  formed  a  favorite  subject 
of  discussion  and  essays  by  practical  writers.  They  have  sug- 
gested a  great  variety  of  devices,  some  of  which  are  effective  and 
useful,  and  it  is  very  hard  to  imagine  the  reason  of  the  total 
nefflect  with  which  most  of  them  have  been  treated.  One  set  of 
these  plans  proposes  heat  as  the  force  to  set  the  air  in  motion.  The 
AVittig  ventilator,  the  most  effective  of  these,  will  scarcely  propel 
air  Avith  sufficient  force  to  blow  out  a  candle. — {Fonssagrievcs.) 

It  has  often  been  suggested  to  associate  ventilation-tubes  with 
the  cooking  galley,  to  act  in  the  manner  of  the  Wittig  ventilator. 
This  is  practicable,  and  might  be  useful,  but  it  would  be  a  labor 
for  Hercules  to  overcome  the  objections  which  it  ^^'ould  encounter 
in  its  initiation.  It  has  likewise  been  proposed  that  the  air  neces- 
sary for  the  combustion  of  fuel  in  the  galley  might  be  drawn 
through  ventilation-tubes  from  the  hold  or  other  part  of  the  ship 
to  be  ventilated.  This  plan  is  open  to  all  the  objections  of  the 
preceding,  wdth  the  additional  one  of  the  supposed  increase  of 
danger  from  fire ;  and,  besides,  any  height  whicli  it  would  be 
convenient  to  give  the  galley  chimney  gives  only  sufficient  draft 
for  the  combustion  of  the  fuel,  without  any  force  to  spare  for 
other  purposes.  Heat,  the  most  efficient  motor  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  is  really  inapplicable  on  shipboard,  from  the  in- 
convenience of  giving  the  flues  sufficient  height,  unless  we  could 
make  the  masts  hollow  for  that  express  purpose.     It  has  been 

11 


162  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  231. 

proposed  to  use  bellows  to  pump  fresh  air  into  various  parts  of 
the  ship,  or,  what  amounts  to  nearly  the  same  thing,  to  pump  the 
foul  air  out.  The  only  objections  to  these  contrivances  are  the 
labor  of  working  them  and  the  space  they  occupy. 

(230.)  The  most  efficient  and  convenient  contrivance  for  me- 
chanical ventilation  is  the  rotary  fan,  as  much  as  may  be  like  the 
farmer's  winnowing  fan  for  cleaning  grain.  We  do  not  know  of 
any  other  contrivance  ^^\t\\  which  the  light  labor  of  one  boy  is 
sufficient  to  propel  a  column  of  air  a  yard  in  diameter,  with  suffi- 
cient force  to  blow  out  an  ordinary  candle ;  but  the  winnowing 
fan  does  this  readily  enough.  In  some  ves,sels,  the  monitor  class, 
for  instance,  it  may  be  advisable  to  ventilate  inhabited  apartments 
in  this  way.  The  opening  at  the  axis  of  the  fiui  can  be  con- 
nected with  an  external  air  opening,  so  as  to  draw  in  pure  air, 
and  it  may  be  propelled  in  any  direction  by  the  labor  of  a  boy. 
And  still  better,  when  the  engine  is  in  motion,  the  fan  may  be 
worked  by  a  small  shaft  or  pulley. 

(231.)  It  is,  however,  the  hold,  and  other  uninhabitc^l  parts, 
which  occasionally  demand  mechanical  ventilation  imperatively. 
In  windy  regions  and  at  sea  this  is  easily  enough  accomplished  by 
wind-sails,  and  only  requires  a  little  attention ;  but  during  calm 
weather,  in  tropical  climates,  something  more  is  required.  During 
our  stay  at  Vera  Cruz,  the  spirit-room  and  after-hold  were  so 
defectively  ventilated  and  so  offensive  as  to  create  some  uneasi- 
ness ;  and  the  fan  represented  in  the  margin  was  designed,  to  be 
made  by  the  carpenter  of  such  materials  as  are  always  to  be  found 
on  shipboard.  But  before  this  fan  was  completed  we  received  a 
similar  machine  from  another  ship  about  leaving  for  home.  This 
fan  was  very  useful.  It  only  required  one  hour  of  light  work 
for  a  boy,  in  the  cool  of  the  evening,  to  change  the  entire  atmos- 
phere of  the  spirit-room  or  after-hold.  The  machine  Avas  worked 
on  deck,  and  the  air  first  drawn  up  was  exceedingly  offensive. 
The  suction  opening  of  the  fan  has  a  canvas  hose  attached,  with 
wooden  hoops  at  short  intervals  to  ]>revent  its  collapse.  This 
ventilator,  or  something  like  it,  should  be  on  board  every  ship 
that  visits  the  tropics,  or  any  calm  warm  region ;  even  our  own 
southern  coast  in  summer.  It  has  been  stated  in  general  terms 
to  matter  little  whether  fresh  air  is  driven  into  the  vessel,  or  the 
vitiated  air  drawn  out,  as  a  complete  renovation  of  the  atmos- 


§  232.  ] 


VENTILATION. 


163 


phcro  results  in  either  case.  To  this  statement  we  may  state  an 
exception:  in  ventilating  the  hokl  in  the  manner  just  mentioned, 
the  suction  hose  drawing  air  from  the  bottom  of  the  hold,  the 
fresh  air  to  supply  its  place  must  necessarily  pass  downward 
through  the  other  ajiartments ;  but  if  we  had  attached  the  hose 
to  the  2)i'opulsion  opening  of  the  machine,  we  should  indeed  have 


Fig.  29. 


Fan  for  Ventilation. 


propelled  fresh  air  into  the  hold,  but  the  vitiated  and  offensive 
air  expelled  must  have  diffused  itself  more  or  less  through  these 
apartments  before  its  final  escape.  We  are  wholly  at  a  loss  to 
comprehend  the  usual  indifference  shown  about  these  simple  con- 
trivances, which  everybody  understands,  which  add  so  greatly  to 
the  comfort  of  all,  and  which  save  many  valuable  lives.  It  seems 
necessary  to  give  the  wings  of  the  fan  a  velocity  of  about  2500 
feet  per  minute.  It  is  sometimes  more  advantageous  to  drive  the 
fresh  air  down,  as  thus  the  foul  air,  smelled  as  it  comes  up,  makes 
known  to  the  dullest  apprehension  that  some  good  is  being  done, 
and  thus  contributes  to  produce  more  zealous  work. 

(232.)  The  cleaning  of  the  decks  and   other  visible  parts  of  a 
ship,  for  the  sake  of  neatness  and  good  order,  is  generally  quite 


164  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  232. 

sufficient  for  all  hygienic  demands  in  this  respect.     The  manner 
in  Avhich  it  is  done,  however,  is  not  altogether  a  matter  of  in- 
difference.    In  dry,  pleasant  weather,  nothing  can  be  better  than 
holystoning  ^vith  a   profusion  of  water  and  sand,  as  the  decks 
promptly  dry,  leaving  a  bright,  clean  surface.     But  in  Avarm, 
calm  weather,  and  the  atmosphere  saturated  with  moisture,  it  is 
far  otherwise.     The  decks,  except  the  spar-deck,  may  be  several 
days  in  drying  ;  and  the  atmosphere  of  the  vessel,  in  the  mean  time, 
is  oppressive  with  the  offensive  effluvia  of  wet  wood.    This  ofFensive- 
ness  of  \yet  decks  is  something  very  different  from  mere  dampness 
of  the  atmosphere;  for  the  atmosphere  may  be  saturated  with  moist- 
ure even  to  the  degree  of  precipitation,  without  any  such  feeling 
of  oppressiveness.     During  such  weather,  the  berth-deck  and 
other  covered  parts  of  a  ship  should  not  be  saturated  with  water. 
It  has  been  attempted  to  obviate  this  difficulty  by  dry  holyston- 
ing.    As  usually  practiced,  this  proceeding  is  very  objectionable. 
Dry  sand  is  sprinkled  on  the  deck,  and  ground  in  great  measure 
into  dust,  Avhich  fills  the  atmosphere  and  is  inhaled  by  the  men 
employed  at  the  work.     These  particles  of  sand,  lodged  in  the 
lungs,  cannot  fail  to  be  a  very  serious  cause  of  injury  to  these 
delicate  organs,  and  yve  may  reasonably  attribute  a  large  part  of 
the  consumption,  which  has  been  very  prevalent  in  the  navies 
of  the  world,  to  this  cause.     Whether  this  may  l)e  obviated  by 
merely  moistening  the  sand,  so  as  to  prevent  the  formation  of 
dust,  we  do  not  know.     The  only  satisfactory  way,  which  we 
have  seen,  of  cleaning  the  berth-deck  in  damp  weather  is  to  scrub 
it  with  hot  water,  wetting  but  a  small  portion  at  a  time,  scraping 
as  much  as  necessary  to  remove  spots,  and  wiping  each  portion 
dry  as  the  work  proceeds ;  thus  the  water  does  not  remain  on  any 
part  of  the  deck  long  enough  to  soak  much  into  the  wood. 

Drying  stoves,  little  movable  sheet-iron  stoves,  with  charcoal, 
are  a  capital  device  for  drying  the  berth-deck  and  purifying  its 
atmosphere.  The  floor  oil-cloth,  now  commonly  used  in  officers' 
apartments,  is  greatly  to  be  commended,  as  it  can  be  washed  clean 
and  wiped  dry  without  inconvenience  of  any  sort.  Similar  ad- 
vantages nvay  ])robably  be  obtained  for  the  berth-deck  by  paint- 
in"-  or  varnishino;,  as  is  sometimes  done  with  the  floors  of  houses. 


CHAPTER   XIX. 

QUAEANTIXE — HOMEWARD    BOUND SUDDEN   CHANGES    OF 

CLIMATE. 

(233.)  While  lying  at  Sacrificios  Island,  a  case  occurred 
whicli  renders  it  convenient  to  discuss  briefly  the  subject  of  quar- 
antines. A  vessel  joined  the  squadron  from  New  York,  and  a 
few  days  after  lier  arrival  one  of  the  crew  was  attacked  with  well- 
marked  small-pox.  The  vessel  was  about  twenty-five  days  from 
New  York ;  the  man  had  been  some  weeks  on  board  the  receiv- 
ing ship  there  without  visiting  the  shore,  so  that  it  is  impossible 
to  say  how  the  disease  was  contracted.  About  two  weeks  before 
arriving  at  this  port  one  of  the  men  had  an  eruptive  fever,  re- 
sembling measles :  this  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  case  of  vario- 
loid, the  source  of  the  small-pox  contagion  on  board ;  but  this 
man  had  returned  from  a  cruise  of  more  than  a  year  on  the 
West  India  station,  without  hearing  anything  about  small-pox ; 
was  transferred  on  his  return  directly  to  the  receiving  ship,  and 
remained  tliere  for  three  weeks,  till  his  transfer  for  the  present 
cruise,  without  ever  having  visited  the  shore.  Do  these  cases 
prove  the  spontaneous  origin  of  small-pox  ? 

As  both  these  men  had  freely  mingled  with  the  crew,  being  a 
part  of  it,  and  reports  of  the  case  might  reach  the  authorities  on 
shore,  it  was  recommended  that  a  quarantine  flag  should  be  worn 
for  a  few  days,  lest  the  market-boats  should  be  interrupted.  At 
the  same  time,  no  absurd  restrictions  were  imposed  on  intercourse 
between  the  ships  of  the  squadron,  or  the  ships  and  town. 

(234.)  After  the  small-pox  patient  first  mentioned  was  well, 
and  the  quarantine  flag  removed,  another  man  of  the  same 
vessel  was  attacked.  It  was  now  concluded  that  quarantining 
enougli  had  been  done ;  the  sick  man  was  merely  confined  to  a 
separate  ajwirtmcnt  with  his  nurse,  none  else  being  allowed  to 
enter  it,  except  under  tlie  direction  of  the  medical  officer.  This 
case  progressed  favorably  for  a  week  after  the  appearance  of  the. 


166  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  235. 

eruption  ;  but  a  sudden  oliange  of  weather  oceurred,  with  a  cool 
breeze,  a  norther ;  the  pustules  shrank  ;  he  was  attackcnl  with 
lethargy,  and  died  There  was  no  other  case  of  this  disease  in 
the  squadron,  or  neighboring  town. 

(235.)  The  legislation  on  the  subject  of  quarantine,  much  of 
it  founded  on  the  ignorant  prejudices  of  persons  who  imagine 
epidemic  diseases  to  originate  and  to  be  propagated  by  contagion 
only,  has  inflicted  a  great  deal  of  mischief  and  cruel  suffering. 
Every  large  city  has  interments  every  week,  nearly  every  day,  of 
persons  dying  of  small -pox,  typhus  fever,  and  other  contagious 
diseases.  How  nonsensical,  then,  the  law  which  would  confine 
a  man  merely  because  he  has  been  on  board  a  ship  in  which  such 
a  disease  has  existed,  or,  still  worse,  because  he  comes  from  a 
town  in  which  such  diseases  exist.  The  notions  on  whicli  these 
laws  are  founded,  rigidly  carried  out,  would  not  ])ermit  a  man  to 
come  from  the  city  of  New  York  at  any  time  whate\er,  without 
undergoing  quarantine  confinement. 

The  city  of  London  has  escaped  great  epidemics  of  tlie  plague 
for  two  centuries,  not  through  the  influence  of  quarantines,  but 
of  a  great  fire,  which  destroyed  a  large  portion  of  the  city,  and 
enabled  the  authorities  to  have  it  rebuilt  in  a  more  healthy  style. 
The  plague  has  likewise  nearly  disappeared  from  the  island  of 
Malta,  not  through  the  influence  of  quarantines,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, by  being  made  the  stopping-place  for  steamers  on  long 
voyages,  which  communicate  at  once  or  not  at  all.  The  places 
where  the  old  system  of  quarantining  prevails  continue  to  suffer 
nearly  as  badly  as  ever.  The  city  of  New  Orleans  has  nearly 
escaped  the  yellow  fever  since  occupied  by  our  troops,  because  the 
intelligent  military  authorities  carried  out  rational  sanitary  meas- 
ures. Baltimore,  and  the  cities  north  of  it,  have  escaped  the 
same  disease  for  half  a  century,  because  they  are  so  abundantly 
supplied  with  river-water  that  streams  of  it  are  constantly  run- 
ning to  waste  through  all  the  drains  and  sewers.  Small-pox  has 
ceased  to  be  a  terrific  pestilence,  sweeping  a  third  of  the  poi)ula- 
tion  from  the  face  of  the  earth  about  once  in  ten  years,  and  has 
become  a  comparatively  small  affiiir,  since  the  great  discovery  of 
.Tenner  has  been  generally  practiced.  We  would  not  do  away  with 
all  sanitary  measures  in  reference  to  a  vessel  entering  a  port,  but 
there  should  be  abundant  discretion  allowed  to  intelligent,  well- 


§  236.  ]  HOMEWARD    BOUND.  167 

educated  officers,  in  order  that  passengers  need  not  be  subjected 
to  disease  and  death  by  senseless  cruelty,  or  commerce  to  absurd 
and  destructive  restrictions.  Persons,  whether  from  distant  cities 
or  not,  who  have  recently  recovered  from  contagious  diseases, 
should  not  enter  a  house  occupied  by  other  persons  without  due 
precaution.  Their  clothing  and  bedding  should  be  thoroughly 
disinfected,  not  under  the  direction  of  ignorant  prejudice,  but  of 
intelligent,  well-educated  persons.  Xo  punishment  is  too  severe 
for  the  convalescent  from  small-pox,  or  the  nurse  who  has  re- 
cently been  exposed  to  it,  Avho  would  take  a  seat  in  a  public  con- 
veyance with  strangers,  as  has  occasionally  been  done  in  our  city 
passenger  railway  cars. 

(236.)  February.  —  The  order  was  passed,  "Up  anchor  for 
home."  But  the  cruise  had  been  so  short  that  the  seamen  did 
not  generally  expect  their  discharge,  and  the  order  excited  but 
little  of  the  enthusiasm  which  we  expect  to  see  on  such  occasions. 

A  few  days  in  Havana  afforded  an  opportunity  for  a  few  little 
expeditions  around  the  neighborhood  and  some  social  visits,  to  be 
remembered  with  satisfaction.  The  medical  topography  of  this 
place  may  be  explained  in  a  few  words.  Havana  is  a  w^alled  city 
in  a  warm  climate.  A  walled  city  is  necessarily  very  compactly 
built,  so  as  to  include  the  largest  possible  number  of  people,  with 
the  smallest  possible  amount  of  walls  to  build  and  defend.  The 
best  part  of  the  city,  the  vicinage  of  the  governor's  palace,  is 
scrupulously  neat  and  beautiful,  with  gardens  of  flowers  and  orna- 
mental shrubbery.  The  good  order  of  this  part  is  such  that  the 
iroveruor's  familv,  and  a  few  others  as  favorablv  situated  for 
health,  generally  escape  the  yellow  fever  even  in  the  worst  epi- 
demics. Cases  of  this  disease,  however,  constantly  exist  in  the 
city,  and  it  is  mostly  a  fearful  epidemic  during  the  latter  part  of 
summer.  This  epidemic  is  not  hard  to  account  for  on  our  theory 
of  the  cause  of  this  disease.  ISIany  of  the  back  streets,  crowded 
with  population,  are  not  paved  or  drained,  so  that  pools  of  stag- 
nant water  receive  all  sorts  of  animal  exuviae,  excrements,  and 
remains,  to  putrefy  among  these  crowds  of  human  beings, — Span- 
ish, negro,  and  mixed.  Outside  of  the  walls,  too,  especially  in 
the  immediate  vicinity,  even  in  some  of  the  principal  thorough- 
fares, the  same  nuisances  may  be  seen.     AVe  do  not  wonder  that 


168  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  238. 

cases  of  yellow  fever  constantly  exist  in  Havana,  and  an  epidemic 
occurs  every  summer. 

(237.)  March  16th. — The  passage  from  Havana  to  New  York 
carried  us  in  four  days  from  tropical  heats  to  severe  winter;  wear- 
rived  in  a  terrific  snow-storm.  Such  sudden  changes  of  tempera- 
ture we  have  always  found  among  the  most  trying  incidents  of  sea 
life ;  but  it  is  really  astonishing  with  how  little  of  real  suffering  we 
go  through  such  a  change  if  it  is  properly  anticipated.  It  was 
curious  from  the  first  moment  of  leaving  Vera  Cruz  to  see  the 
sailors  examining  their  flannels  and  winter  clothing,  from  day  to 
day.  The  woollen  socks  were  examined  and  darned ;  the  flannel 
drawers  patched  and  quilted ;  the  pea-coats  made  all  right,  and 
those  who  had  no  such  garments  made  something  still  better,  by 
quilting  two  or  three  flannel  shirts  together,  or  one  new  one  with 
all  available  old  ones.  INIittens,  too,  of  no  matter  how  many 
thicknesses,  and  caps  with  ears,  to  tie  under  the  chin,  were  made. 
The  instant  we  crossed  the  Gulf  Stream  all  these  devices  and  a 
good  many  more  came  into  use.  Fire  was  kept  in  the  galley 
night  and  day,  so  that  men  who  were  cold  had  an  opportunity  to 
warm  themselves  and  to  make  coflx?e.  With  these  arrangements 
it  is  astonishing  with  how  little  appearance  of  injur,^  the  transition 
was  borne — from  summer  to  winter  in  one  day.  ]Men  got  cold, 
shivered,  and  warmed  themselves;  they  had  catarrhs,  pleurisies, 
pneumonias,  and  frosted  fingers;  but  with  good  appetites,  and 
hopes  of  soon  reaching  comfortable  quarters,  of  serious  sickness 
there  was  but  little. 

(238.)  The  men  on  arriving  at  New  York  were  somewhat  dis- 
appointed in  their  expectation  of  being  made  comfortable.  The 
ship  was  required  to  lie  several  days  off  the  Battery,  in  a  snow- 
storm, before  proceeding  to  the  navy  yard;  Plenty  of  coal  stoves, 
however,  properly  disposed,  with  awnings  and  hoods  over  the 
hatches,  and  other  sailor  devices,  made  warm  and  dry  corners  for 
such  as  needed  them  when  off  watch.  As  soon  as  the  ship  was 
moved  up  to  the  yard,  a  fine  sunny  day  affording  the  opportunity, 
all  the  men  on  the  sick  list  were  transferred  to  the  naval  hospital. 
In.  a  few  days  more  there  was  an  order  to  transfer  the  stores  to 
the  warehouses  of  the  navy  yard  and  the  men  to  the  receiving 
ship.  Our  ship  was  laid  up  "  in  ordinary,"  and  the  officers,  in 
the  evenino:,  were  on  the  road  to  their  various  homes. 


§  239.  ]  SUDDEN   TRANSITIONS.  169 

The  ship  went  out  of  conuuission  on  the  1st  of  A])ril,  and  be- 
fore midnight  the  order  arrived  to  refit  inmuuliately  with  the 
same  officers  and  crew.  The  men  were  at  hand  and  telegraphic 
despatches  brought  back  the  officers.  We  passed  Sandy  Hook, 
April  6th,  outward  bound,  but  no  one  knew  whither.  A  few 
days,  and  Ave  were  in  sight  of  Fort  Pickens,  at  the  entrance  of 
Pensacohi  Bay.  The  fort  was  i)romptly  relieved,  and  an  effi^c- 
tive  force  of  the  Second  Artillery  landed. 

(239.)  April  12th. — In  the  course  of  a  month  we  have  just 
passed  from  the  tropical  weather  of  Havana  to  a  New  York  win- 
ter, with  its  succession  of  snow-storms  and  cold,  and  after  remain- 
ing there  nearly  three  weeks,  have  returned  to  the  region  of  warm 
weather.  These  sudden  transitions  do  not  seem  to  have  affected 
health  very  seriously ;  on  entering  the  rigion  of  cold  weather, 
there  was  much  discomfort  certainly, — some  frosted  fingers,  some 
cases  of  pneumonia,  many  catarrhs,  but  not  one  death.  The 
change  in  the  opposite  direction  was  still  more  satisfactory :  in 
leaving  New  York  we  escaped  from  its  cold,  and  the  catarrhs  dis- 
appeared gradually  as  the  weather  became  warm.  In  the  month 
of  April  there  is  no  discomfort  from  either  heat  or  cold  at  Fort 
Pickens. 


CHAPTER   XX. 

PREPARATIONS   FOR    BATTLE TRANSPORTATION   OF    WOUNDED 

ACCIDENTS    FROM     FIREARMS  —  MOUTHS    OF    THE    MISSIS- 
SIPPI— FRESH    PROVISIONS — -CURACOA. 


Fig.  30. 


(240.)  The  passage  to  Pensacola  included  the  probability  of  a 
hostile  engagement  on  our  arrival  there,  so  that  it  Avas  necessary 
to  be  prepared.  Among  the  first  necessities  of  wounded  men  are 
water  and  stimulants,  as  well  as  bandages,  lint,  and  tourniquets. 
It  would  appear  advantageous  that,  instead  of  a  musket,  about 
one  man  to  every  fifty  should  carry  a  satchel 
moderately  filled  vdth  these  things  for  the 
wounded.  The  tourniquet,  however,  in  igno- 
rant hands,  seems  likely  to  do  more  harm  than 
good,  especially  after  great  battles,  where  proper  at- 
tention cannot  always  promptly  reach  the  wounded. 
The  general  theory  of  the  use  of  this  instrument  is 
so  simple  that  every  one  imagines  he  knows  all 
about  the  matter  in  an  instant,  and  the  moment 
he  sees  a  wounded  man  he  is  for  applying  the 
instrument,  and  inunoderately  tight,  with  the 
effect  of  destroying  the  circulation  of  the  limb. 
If  the  wounded  man  remains  in  this  condition 
without  proper  attention  for  some  hours,  mortification  of  the  limb 
and  death  of  the  sufferer  is  the  probable  consequence.  This  has, 
doubtless,  been  the  case  very  often  when  the  bleeding  was  quite 
inconsiderable,  and  when  the  patient  would  have  recovered  if  his 
friends  had  not  possessed  this  dangerous  contrivance.  If  a  large 
artery  of  one  of  the  extremities  be  wounded,  whether  by  ball  or 
by  sabre,  the  tournicpict  is  appropriate,  and  not  otherwise;  but  a 
very  small  projxtrtion  of  tlie  wounds  in  battle  arc  of  this  char- 
acter. As  a  rule,  the  application  of  lint  and  bandage,  with  mod- 
erate firmness,  is  more  appropriate  and  more  likely  to  save  life. 


Surgeon's  Haversack. 


§  241.  ]  TRA.NSPORTATION.  171 

(241.)  The  transportation  of  tlie  wonndcd  is  varionsly  managed 
according:  to  emergencies.  A\'licn  the  wonnded  are  merely  to  be 
taken  beloAV  from  the  deck,  the  best  arrangement  is  to  have  a 
stout  man  lift  the  wonnded,  by  placing  one  arm  back  of  the 
shoulders  and  the  other  under  the  knees.  Holding  him  in  this 
way  he  can  carry  him  up  or  down  stairs,  or  a  short  distance  any- 
Avhere,  with  as  little  jostling  or  injury  as  by  any  available  contriv- 
ance. If  a  wounded  man  be  too  heavy  to  be  carried  in  this  way 
he  may  be  placed  in  an  arm-chair  and  carried  by  two  or  three 
men.  If  too  severely  injured  to  be  handled  in  a  chair,  he  may 
be  transported  on  a  sick-bay  cot,  a  cord  of  sufficient  length  being 
attached,  if  it  be  desired  to  lower  the  cot  to  the  berth-deck.  If 
men  are  to  be  carried  any  distance  by  hand,  stretchers,  wooden 
frames,  Avith  canvas  (Fig.  32),  should  be  provided,  or  the  cots 
may  be  used  with  loops  attached  to  the  sides,  so  that  muskets  can 
be  attached  as  bearing-poles.  Pikes,  oars,  and  boat-hooks  are 
occasionally  found  useful  for  this  purpose.  The  arrangement  with 
muskets  has  the  advantage  that  it  transports  so  many  nuiskets  to 
the  hospital.  Two  muskets,  tied  together  by  their  bayonets,  form 
a  good  bearing-staif,  on  which  a  man,  not  so  badly  wounded,  may 
be  carried  in  a  hammock. 

It  appears  that  each  wounded  man  on  the  average  requires  two 
comrades  to  assist  him  to  the  rear,  and  that  they  very  rarely  again 
reach  the  front,  so  that  if  a  battle  should  continue  till  one-third 
were  wounded,  the  other  two-thirds  would  be  away  taking  care 
of  them.  Hence  the  persistence  of  an  army  depends  in  battle 
greatly  on  the  existence  of  a  really  efficient  ambulance  corps  to 
attend  to  the  removal  of  the  wounded. 

In  an  appendix  to  the  first  edition  of  this  work  there  is  de- 
scribed an  ingenious  and  very  convenient  contrivance  for  removing 
the  wounded  on  board  ship,  as  arranged  by  jNIedical  Inspector  A. 
C.  Gorgas.  It  consists  essentially  of  a  common  cot,  which,  for 
this  purpose,  is  made  considerably  smaller  than  usual ;  two  pieces 
of  board  are  joined  at  a  right  angle  to  make  inclined  planes  under 
the  knees ;  and  there  is  a  pillow  and  a  band  at  the  upper  part  to 
hold  the  patient  securely  in  position.  When  it  is  necessary  to 
lower  the  foot  of  the  cot,  as  in  descending  a  hatchway,  the  in- 
clined planes  hold  the  lower  part  of  the  body  securely  and  com- 


172 


NAVAL    HYGIENE. 


[  §  241. 


fortably.    This  ambulance  cot,  suspended  by  the  cords  at  the  ends, 
makes  a  veiy  good  invalicVs  dtair. 


Fig.  31. 


Ambulance  Cot. 


A  stout  arni-cliair  is  sometimes  securely  slung,  so  that  bv  means 
of  a  whip  on  the  mainyard  a  wounded  man,  an  invalid,  or  eyen 


Iland-litter  lor  currying  the  WouuiUa  heyond  Musket  range. 

a  lady  or  child,  securely  tied   in  the  machine  by  shawls,  flags, 
cords,  etc.,  may  be  safely  hoisted  or  lowered  from  a  boat,  even 


§  243.  ]  LOW    ISLANDS.  173 

Avlicn  the  weather  is  too  rouijh  to  come  very  close  to  the  side  of 
tlie  slii]x  Tliis  is  rather  better  tliaii  the  cot,  unless  the  patient  is 
too  weak  to  sit  up. 

(242.)  ]5ut,  in  the  course  of  our  blockadino;  service  at  Fort 
Pickens,  an  accident  occurred  which  calls  for  a  few  remarks.  On 
the  return  of  the  first  armed  boat  expedition  of  the  cruise  the 
men  commenced  i)assing  Minie  rifles  from  the  boat,  and  one  of 
these  guns  was  accidentally  discharged,  shooting  a  man  through 
the  thigh.  Such  accidents  to  boat  expeditions  are  so  common 
that  it  may  be  well  to  describe  the  manner  in  which  they  occur. 
When  a  boat  expedition  is  to  be  fitted  out  a  quarter  gunner  loads 
a  dozen  or  two  rifles,  not  omitting  percussion  primers,  and  lays 
them  in  an  irregular  heap.  Another  man  transfers  them  to  an- 
other part  of  the  ship  by  taking  them  in  his  arms,  as  many  as  he 
can  lift  at  a  time,  as  if  he  were  handling  hoop-poles,  carries  them 
across  the  deck  or  up  a  ladder,  and  lays  them  down  again  in  a 
heap.  The  guns  do  not  always  go  off  by  this  sort  of  handling  ; 
in  fiict,  I  have  never  known  a  man  to  be  shot  by  this  part  of  the 
manoeuvre,  but  I  have  noticed  that  most  persons  about  observe 
the  direction  of  the  muzzles  and  stand  clear.  When  the  boat  is 
brought  alongside  the  guns  are  generally  passed  into  it  by  men 
standing  in  a  row,  nearly  the  length  of  a  gun  apart,  so  that  the 
muzzle  is  pretty  sure  to  point  toward  some  one.  On  the  return 
of  the  expedition  the  guns  are  passed  from  the  boat  in  the  same 
manner.  It  is  not  very  astonishing  that  frequent  accidents  occur 
from  this  manner  of  handling  firearms.  As  far  as  my  observa- 
tion has  gone,  the  first  armed  boat  expedition  of  every  cruise  has 
always  produced  an  accident  in  this  way.  In  California,  during 
the  Mexican  war,  there  was  perhaps  more  preparation  than  fight- 
ing, and  it  was  computed  at  the  time  that  about  one-third  of  the 
wounds  and  deaths  from  firearms  were  accidents  from  the  man- 
ner of  handling  arms. 

In  the  last  edition  of  the  Ordnance  Ilanual,  this  subject  is 
attended  to.  Percussion  caps  are  not  to  be  placed  on  the  rifles 
in  fitting  out  boat  expeditions,  and  before  passing  the  guns  from 
the  boat  the  primers  are  to  be  removed.  Instructions  to  men  in 
the  use  of  arras  are  directed  with  some  urgency. 

(243.)  The  low  sand  islands  of  the  coast,  such  as  Santa  Rosa, 
on  which  Fort  Pickens  is  located,  afford  an  abundant  supply  of 


174 


NAVAL    HYGIENE. 


[  §  244. 


good  water  witliout  further  trouble  tlian  digging  shallow  wells  in 
the  sand.  They  likewise  have  wholesome  breezes  from  the  ocean, 
and  are  much  less  affected  by  annoying  insects  than  the  neighbor- 
ing main  land.  With  good  sanitary  police  we  shall  be  able  to 
maintain  garrisons  in  good  health  on  any  of  these  islands  which 
it  may  become  necessary  to  occupy. 

(244.)  From  Pensacola  Ave  passed  to  Mobile  Bar,  and  had  a 
good  view  of  Fort  Morgan  in  the  distance.  Two  or  three  days 
later  we  established  the  blockade  at  the  Southwest  Pass  of  the 


Fig.  33. 


.PASS 


S  W.RAS8. 

MouUis  of  the  Mississippi. 


Mississippi.  At  first  there  were  vessels  passing  in  and  out  every 
day,  presenting  new  objects  of  interest  constantly.  There  is  not 
much  swell  here,  and  the  ship  lies  very  comfortably,  just  outside 
the  bar.  The  volume  of  fresh  water  is  so  great  and  remains  so 
distinct  from  the  water  of  the  ocean,  that  by  watching  opportuni- 
ties we  were  able  to  draw  from  the  surface  alongside  all  the  fresh 
water  required  for  use  on  board.  This  water  was  very  nniddy, 
but  by  merely  settling,  it  became  sufficiently  clear  and  palatable. 


§  245.  ]  THE   MISSISSIPPI.  175 

AVc  had  no  occasion  to  seek  l)etter  water.  The  (lei)tli  of  water  on 
the  bar  is  about  fifteen  feet,  but  tlie  mud  is  so  soft,  that  the  ves- 
sels drawing  eighteen  feet,  or  even  more,  work  their  way  through 
it.  Tlie  steam-tugs  bring  them  down  till  they  stick  fast  in  tlio 
mud  and  there  leave  them  to  the  winds  and  currents.  The  small 
vessels  generally  get  through  in  three  or  four  days,  but  large  ves- 
sels remain  as  many  weeks  or  even  months,  so  that  the  crossing 
of  this  bar  is  apt  to  cost  as  much  as  all  the  rest  of  the  passage  to 
Europe.  It  is  really  astonishing  that  no  attempt  has  been  made 
to  carry  the  larger  vessels  over  this  point  by  camels  or  similar 
contrivance. 

The  situation  here  is  quite  healthy,  and  even  at  the  lighthouse, 
six  or  seven  miles  above,  among  reedy  islands,  they  never  have 
intermittent  fever.  Everything  seems  to  be  so  much  submerged 
and  so  thoroughly  washed  by  currents  that  the  malarial  miasm 
has  no  abiding-place.  The  Balize— the  pilot  station  further  up 
the  river — seems  to  enjoy  a  similar  exemption. 

(245.)  While  at  the  Southwest  Pass  we  had  some  experience  of 
the  considerate  forethought  and  intelligent  energy  of  the  admin- 
istration at  home,  in  the  extraordinary  arrangements  for  the  pres- 
ervation of  health.  The  most  important  of  these  was  an  abun- 
dant supply  of  ice  and  fresh  provisions  to  the  squadrons.  A 
cargo  sailed  once  a  month  from  New  York  for  the  supply  of  the 
blockading  vessels.  The  arrival  of  these  supply  vessels  was  very 
welcome,  and  a  place  for  the  storage  of  a  few  tons  of  ice  was 
quickly  arranged  and  quickly  filled ;  and  between  the  layers  of 
ice  were  snugly  deposited  quarters  of  beef  and  saddles  of  mutton, 
enough  to  supply  in  profusion  the  whole  crew  for  a  week  or  ten 
days.  The  supply  ship  was  then  ready  to  go  on  her  round  to  the 
coast  of  Texas,  treating  the  other  blockading  vessels  on  her  route 
in  the  same  way.  The  benefits  of  this  arrangement,  affording 
salutary  changes  from  salt  diet,  with  the  cheering  influences  of 
news  from  home,  cannot  be  overestimated.  The  health  and 
strength  of  the  men,  and  consequently  the  efficiency  of  the  block- 
ade, have  been  greatly  due  to  these  beef-boats. 

During  the  early  part  of  the  blockade,  we  drew  a  tolerable  sup- 
ply of  fresh  fruits  from  a  very  different  source.  Small  cargoes  of 
fruit  from  Cuba  and  Mexico  came  in  occasionally,  with  intention 
of  running  the  blockade,  and  fell  into  our  power.     They  were 


173  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  246. 

permittetl  to  sell  out  to  our  men  at  a  good  price  and  go  on  their 
way  rejoicing,  probably  to  reappear  in  a  few  days  to  go  again 
through  the  same  ceremony.  The  people  engaged  in  this  business 
always  left  us  in  doubt  whether  they  were  more  desirous  of  sup- 
plying us  or  our  enemies.  Some  of  them  doubtless  acted  the 
part  of  spies. 

(246.)  We  had  a  cruise  in  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  to  the  coast 
of  Brazil  beyond  the  mouths  of  the  Amazon.  AVe  stopped  at 
Kingston,  Jamaica,  and  received  a  supply  of  coal.  Some  of  the 
men  behaved  badly  and  got  drunk.  In  consequence  of  this 
visit,  in  the  course  of  a  month,  we  had  several  cases  of  remittent 
fever,  of  no  great  severity,  none  of  the  cases  proving  fatal.  The 
Island  of  Curafoa  at  the  time  of  our  visit  was  quite  healthy, 
and  from  an  inspection  of  the  locality',  with  its  good  pavements, 
its  good  sanitary  police,  and  its  sea-breezes,  it  may  be  expected  to 
remain  so  as  long  as  the  inliabitants  retain  a  personal  recollection 
of  the  sufferings  of  the  past.  The  Island  of  St.  Thomas  we 
found  the  centre  of  supplies  and  intelligence;  it  has  an  excellent 
harbor  in  a  mountainous  island  of  well-drained  slopes.  We 
passed  south  of  the  Island  of  Barbadoes,  and  with  the  island  in 
sight  had  an  epidemic  catarrh,  influenza ;  and  probably  every 
person  on  board  suffered  from  the  disease. 


CHAPTER    XXI. 


SPECIAL    HYGIENE EPIDEMICS. 


(247.)  Theije  are  many  causes  of  disease  of  which  we  know 
very  little,  and  some  of  which  we  know  absolutely  nothing  at  all. 
The  occasional  prevalence  of  influenza,  epidemic  catarrh,  may  be 
mentioned  as  a  case  of  disease  in  which  no  person  of  conuuon 
honesty  and  common  sense  pretends  to  know  the  cause.  Those 
who  are  unwilling  to  acknowledge  this  degree  of  ignorance  may 
make  guesses,  and  suggest  some  distemperature  of  air  or  earth, 
or  some  error  of  diet,  or  they  may  put  down  some  of  the  symp- 
toms for  the  cause,  and  say  it  is  caused  by  fever,  or  irritation,  or 
inflammation  of  the  air-passages.  They  might  as  w^ell  suggest 
at  once  that  influenza  is  caused  by  influenza.  The  only  fair  way 
to  get  over  the  difficulty  is  to  say  that  the  cause  is  in  some  epi- 
demic influence,  and  to  explain  further  that  there  certainly  must 
be  some  influence,  and  epidemic  is  the  single  word  in  common 
use  to  indicate  that  we  know  little  or  nothing  about  it,  except 
that  it  affects  or  falls  upon  the  people  (s-f,  upon  ;  (hp-oc,  people), 
and  causes  many  of  them  to  suffer  from  disea-se  in  the  same  way 
at  the  same  time. 

But  influenza  is  by  no  means  the  only  disease  which  occurs 
epidemically.  There  have  been  epidemics  of  cholera,  dysentery, 
typhus,  etc.,  in  fact  nearly  all  the  diseases  which  afflict  humanity 
seem  occasionally  to  prevail  more  extensively  than  usual  on  ac- 
count of  some  epidemic  influence.  Sydenham  was  probably  the 
first  to  fully  appreciate  the  constant  presence  of  some  epidemic 
influence,  or  epidemic  constitution  of  disease,  as  he  called  it.  He 
describes  several  epidemic  constitutions,  running  into  and  blend- 
ing with  each  other,  the  constitutions  constantly  changing,  in 
fact.     These  occurred  in  the  following  order  : 

I.  Epidemic  constitution  of  1G(j1,'62,  '63,  savl  '64:  Continual 

12 


178  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [§248. 

fever,    autumnal    remittent;    agues,    intermittent    fever;    small- 
pox. 

II.  Epidemic  constitution  of  1065, '(i'i:  Pneumonia,  pleurisy, 
and  quinsy,  in  the  s})rin«2;  ol'  1G65;  ])estilential  fever, a  continual 
fever,  very  ditierent  from  that  of  the  previous  constitution ; 
plague,  with  carbuncles  and  Ijubos,  at  its  height  about  September 
10th,  16G5,  when  eight  thousand  died  in  one  week. 

III.  Epidemic  constitution  of  16(37-68,  and  a  part  of  '69: 
Continual  fever,  variolous  fever ;  regular  small-pox. 

lY.  Epidemic  constitution  of  1669,  '70,  '71,  and  '72:  Chol- 
era, epidemic  cholera  of  1669;  continual  fever,  a  dysenteric 
fever;  dysentery;  measles,  1670;  irregular  small-pox,  a  black 
small-pox  in  1670,  '71,  and  72;  bilious  colic  1670, '71,  '72. 

V.  Epidemic  constitution  of  part  of  1673,  '74,  and  '75  :  Con- 
tinual fever,  a  comatose  fever;  measles,  1674;  irregular  small- 
pox, a  malignant  black  small-pox,  1674,  '75;  cough,  pleurisy, 
and  peripueumony,  1675. 

YI.  Epidemic  diseases  from  1675  to  1680:  Measles,  1676; 
cholera,  epidemic,  1676;  intermittent,  1677, '78,  and  '79;  con- 
tinual fever,  comatose  fever,  like  that  of  1675  in  1679;  cough, 
like  children's  cough,  pertussis,  1679;  intermittents,  1680,  '81, 
'82,  '83,  '84,  and  '85. 

(248.)  Professor  George  B.  Wood  mentions  similar  epidemic 
influences  prevailing  over  somewhat  similar  periods  in  Philadel- 
j>hia,  and  more  or  less  extensively  over  the  United  States.  He 
gives  accounts  of  the  following,  arranged  somewhat  differently : 

An  epidemic  of  malarial  fevers  commenced  in  1795.,  and 
lasted  ten  or  twelve  years;  another,  commencing  in  1822,  lasted 
ten  years. 

An  epidemic  of  yellow  fever  commenced  in  1792,  and  lasted 
two  or  three  yeai-s ;  another,  commencing  in  1820,  lasted  one 
year. 

An  epidemic  of  typhus  conunenced  in  1812,  and  lasted  six  or 
eight  years;  another,  conunencing  in  1 836,  lasted  two  years  ;  and 
another,  commencing  in  1851,  lasted  live  years. 

An  epidemic  cholera  commenced  in  1832,  and  lasted  two  years. 

An  epidemic  influenza,  producing  neuralgia,  commencing  in 
1838,  lasted  five  years. 

There  are  here  monlioned  two  epidemics  of  yellow  fever,  last- 


§  250.  ]  EPIDEMICS.  179 

ino-  a  year  or  two,  witli  an  interval  of  tAventy-eiglit  years ;  three 
epidemics  of  typhus,  histing  from  two  to  eight  years,  with  inter- 
vals of  sixteen  and  twenty-four  years,  the  most  severe  epidemic 
being  succeeded  by  the  longer  ])eriod  of  exemption.  The  chol- 
era e])idemic  lasted  tAvo  years,  travelling  very  irregularly  over 
the  country.  Malarial  fevers  prevail  more  or  less  in  certain  lo- 
calities near  Philadelphia  every  year,  the  years  indicated  being 
years  of  unusual  prevalence;  but  these  fevers  never  occur  in 
densely  built  portions  of  the  city.  All  countries  and  all  places 
have,  in  this  way,  their  epidemic  influences,  and  Pliiladel})hia, 
with  this  frightful  array  of  "  the  pestilence  that  walketh  in  dark- 
ness," seems,  by  the  published  statistical  tables,  to  be  about  the 
healthiest  city  in  the  healthiest  country  in  the  world. 

(249.)  The  word  plague  {plaga,  a  blow),  in  ancient  writings, 
seems  generally  to  mean  about  the  same  as  epidemic  with  us.  It 
certainly  meant  very  various  diseases  and  afflictions ;  thus  there 
Avas  a  plague  of  frogs,  of  lice,  and  of  grasshoppers,  as  well  as  the 
plague  of  leprosy,  of  boils,  and  of  hiemorrhoids.  But  why  the 
terms  plague  and  pestilence,  of  similar  import,  should  be  so  fre- 
quently associated,  is  not  apparent  unless  they  were  occasionally 
appropriated  to  specific  diseases. 

The  cause  and  nature  of  this  epidemic  influence  we  have  said 
is  quite  unknown.  The  most  ancient  theory  is  as  true  as  any : 
God  so  ordained  it ;  has  thus  organized  his  creatures.  Anciently 
these  diseases  were  mostly  attributed  to  His  wrath;  and  certainly 
they  mostly  result  more  or  less  directly  from  violations  of  His 
known  laws,  AVhen  we  seek  for  the  instruments  of  His  will  in 
this  matter,  we  get  into  a  labyrinth  of  guesses,  and  ingenious  and 
plausible  theories,  in  Avhich  hydrocarbons,  fermentations,  organic 
germs,  microscopic  animalcules,  and  cryptogamic  vegetations  are 
made  prominently  to  figure.  They  nearly  all  refer  to  impurities 
or  distemperatures  of  the  atmosphere. 

(250.)  But  this  want  of  knowledge  does  not  extend  to  the  con- 
secpiences  of  epidemic  influence ;  and  from  the  observed  course 
of  diseases  we  are  enabled  to  announce  as  established  the  follow- 
ing laws  of  epidemics : 

I.  The  epidemic  influence  is  sujfjcient  to  produce  specific  diseases, 
in  some  rare  cases,  without  the  intervention  of  any  other  cause. 
AVe  may  instance  as  examples  of  this,  the  prevalence  of  influ- 


180  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  250. 

enza  in  tlio  summer  season,  witliout  any  peculiarity  of  weather 
to  account  for  it.  In  the  commencement  of  e])i{lemics  of  small- 
pox there  are  generally  three  or  four  cases  of  the  disease  occur- 
ring nearly  at  the  same  moment  in  diiferent  distant  parts  of  a 
city,  without  any  communication,  direct  or  indirect,  having  oc- 
curred, and  without  the  possibility  of  tracing  the  disease  to  direct 
contagion. 

II.  The  epidemic  infiaeiice  is  much  more  frequent! ij  merehj  a 
cause  of  aggravation  in  diseases  which  at  the  same  time  are  prop- 
agated by  well-known  though  possibly  obscure  causes.  Thus 
small-pox  and  measles,  typhus  and  scarlet  fever,  are  much  more 
prevalent  and  much  more  fatal  during  certain  seasons  when  they 
prevail  epidemically,  though  propagated  by  contagion  as  they  are 
at  all  seasons,  every  season.  Intermittents  and  other  malarial 
fevers  during  seasons  of  epidemic  prevalence  are  much  more  fatal 
than  usual,  though  exhibiting  their  common  forms  and  prevailing 
principally  in  their  usual  localities. 

III.  The  epidemic  infiuence  sets  in  very  vioJenthj  at  frst,  and 
gradually  abates  as  the  season  advances.  In  evidence  of  this  we 
may  state  that  the  first  few  cases  of  diseases  in  all  epidemics 
mostly  prove  fatal  (in  regard  to  the  epidemic  cholera  it  is  noticed 
that  the  first  few  cases  nearly  all  prove  fatal),  but  the  disease 
gradually  becoming  more  manageable,  towards  the  close  of  the 
season,  it  is  scarcely  more  dangerous  than  ordinary  catarrh.  In 
regard  to  small-pox,  it  is  stated  that  as  many  as  three  in  five 
cases,  sixty  per  hundred,  prove  fatal  during  the  first  few  weeks 
of  an  epidemic ;  and  but  very  rarely  is  the  proportion  of  deaths 
more  than  two  in  five,  forty  per  hundred,  the  whole  ej^idemic 
through,  and  very  rarely  is  the  proportion  of  deaths  in  this  dis- 
ease more  than  one  in  twenty  cases,  five  per  hundred.  This  law 
holds  good  in  all  epidemics,  so  that  if  we  lose  all  our  first  patients 
in  a  disease  thus  prevailing,  and  none  later  in  the  season,  we  may 
not,  merely  from  this  fact,  infer  that  we  have  obtained  any  great 
additional  skill  in  the  management. 

IV.  The  epidemic  influence  is  frequently  felt  in  slighter  affections 
of  similar  character,  before  the  disease  is  established  in  full  force. 
Thus  mild  cases  of  diarrhoea  arc  very  numerous  ibr  a  week  or 
two  before  the  first  cases  of  epidemic  cholera  make  their  appear- 


ance. 


§  251.  ]  EPIDEMICS.  181 

V.  The  epidemic  influence  is  very  generallij  felt  by  the  lower 
animals,  and  in  some  cases  before  any  such  influence  is  observed 
on  the  human  race.  Rush  observes  that  cats,  dogs,  and  birds 
died  in  great  numbers,  both  before  and  during  the  yellow  fever 
of  1793.     And  in  the  Grecian  host  before  Troy — 

"  On  dogs  and  cats  the  infection  first  began, 
And  next  the  fatal  arrows  fixed  on  man." — Pope. 

(251.)  Sydenham  informs  us  that  "the  plague  rarely  rages  vio- 
lently in  England  oftener  than  once  in  the  space  of  thirty  or 
forty  years."  We  have  histories,  however,  of  the  following  epi- 
demics in  London,  Avhicli  had  an  average  interval  of  but  eigh- 
teen years : 

In  1593,  there  died  11,106  during  the  season  of  ten  months. 

In  1603,  there  died  29,992. 

In  1625,  there  died  34,754. 

In  1636,  there  died  11,000;  this,  however,  was  called  the 
great  plague,  as  it  lasted  twelve  years,  till  1647. 

In  1665,  there  died  69,602  in  nine  months.  This  was  the  la.st 
great  plague,  described  by  Defoe. 

But  perhaps  we  are  to  come  to  the  conclusion  that  this  idea  of 
epidemic  constitutions  is  a  delusion  after  all.  The  plague  has 
been  traced  to  the  crowding,  privation,  and  want  of  cleanliness  in 
tlie  old  fortified  cities.  Hence  after  a  sweeping  pestilence,  there 
is  comparative  health  until  the  place  becomes  again  crowded  and 
dirty,  with  a  new  generation  of  subjects  for  the  disease.  Similar 
reasoning  is  applicable  to  small-pox :  fortunately  since  the  dis- 
covery of  Jenner,  we  have  the  means  of  destroying  individual 
susceptibility  to  this  disease ;  but  human  nature  is  so  perverse 
that  every  few  years  there  grows  up  a  new  generation  who  will 
not  believe  in  vaccination,  till  the  community  is  startled  by  a  few 
deaths  from  small-pox.  The  epidemic  influence  is  a  new  genera- 
tion of  unvaccinated  people ;  the  vaccinators  get  to  work  and  the 
deadly  pestilence  is  avoided.  And  again,  malarial  fevers  are 
occasionally  epidemic — very  prevalent  and  very  fatal ;  such  epi- 
demics have  been  traced  to  derangement  of  the  watercourses  of 
the  country  by  public  works.  Quite  recently,  in  India,  a  terrible 
destruction  of  life  was  traced  to  the  building  of  canals  for  in- 


182  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  251. 

ternal  navigation ;  and  in  our  own  country  these  ci)ideniics  are 
found  to  have  coincided  with  similar  public  works.  The  dam- 
ming of  small  streams  for  mill-ponds,  has  occasioned  many  such 
epidemics  on  a  small  scale.  An  epidemic  pestilence  has  generally 
been  noticed  among  the  consequences  of  war ;  the  destruction  of 
property  and  the  resulting  derangement  of  industries,  must  neces- 
sarily entail  subsequent  privations,  which  can  only  be  mitigated 
by  all  the  alleviations  which  social  science  is  able  to  suggest ;  but 
we  have  advanced  so  far  in  the  right  direction,  that  hereafter, 
instead  of  the  terrific  pestilence,  perhaps  the  crisis  of  suffering 
may  be  passed  without  anything  worse  than  an  epidemic  of  vaga- 
bondism and  beggary, — the  tramp  nuisance.  Thas  one  after 
another,  we  trace  the  terrific  epidemics  to  a  manageable  cause,  and 
the  epidemic  constitutions  vanish. 


CHAPTER   XXII. 

ENDEMICS MALARIAL    FEVERS. 

(252.)  The  diseases  of  whose  causes  we  know  but  little  are 
of  the  very  highest  importance,  and  require  from  us  the  most 
careful  study.  Some  diseases  occur  principally  in  particular  lo- 
calities, and  are  hence  called  endemic  {^v,  among ;  5£//"c,  the  peo- 
ple), as  coming  among  the  people.  This  term  seems  not  very 
different,  etymologically,  from  epidemic;  and  these  words  have 
occasionally  been  used  in  a  confused  manner ;  but  their  proper 
application  is  very  distinct.  Thus,  there  is  a  curious  disease  of 
the  hair,  P/ica  pohnica,  thought  to  be  peculiar  to  Poland,  and 
hence  said  to  be  endemic  in  that  country.  Intermittents,  as  they 
prevail  principally  in  level  marshy  districts,  are  said  to  be  en- 
demic to  marshy  lands.  The  yellow  fever,  prevailing  more  or 
less  constantly  in  all  the  cities  of  tropical  America,  is  endemic  in 
those  cities.  When  unusually  prevalent  and  exceedingly  fatal, 
without  apparent  reason  for  this  change  of  character,  yellow  fever 
is  said  to  prevail  epidemically,  or  to  have  become  epidemic.  In 
this  case  an  epidemic  influence  is  supposed  to  be  superadded  to 
the  ordinary  causes  of  the  disease.  We  must  pass  in  review  the 
most  important  and  most  curious  endemic  diseases. 

(253.)  The  malarial  fevers,  intermittents,  remittents,  etc., — the 
periodic  fevers — are  endemic  to  marshy  localities.  Their  obscure 
cause  is  supposed  to  be  some  emanation  from  the  soil  itself,  con- 
taminating the  atmosphere.  This  supposed  emanation  is  called 
malaria  or  malarial  miasm.  It  is  too  subtle  to  be  discovered  by 
the  senses,  or  any  sort  of  chemical  analysis  yet  devised,  and  is 
only  known  by  its  effects  in  causing  disease.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed to  be  some  one  of  the  poisonous  carbohydrogens ;  but  none 
of  these  has  been  found  capable  of  producing  any  such  disease ; 
and  coal  mines  known  to  abound  in  these  substances  appear  not 
to  injure  health  in  this  way.     Sulphide  of  hydrogen,  too,  has  been 


184  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  254. 

suspected ;  but  with  some  observation  of  men,  in  an  atmosphere 
contaminated  l)v  this  substance,  I  have  never  seen  any  evidence 
of  its  coiitributiuij:  to  j)roduce  this  form  of  disease.  When  we 
inquire  into  the  circumstances  of  the  origin  of  this  malaria,  al- 
though its  essential  nature  eludes  us,  we  arrive  at  facts  of  the 
greatest  practical  importance.  Xo  more  important  subject  of 
study  can  occupy  the  human  intellect ;  and  the  little  that  is 
already  known  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  all  those  who  would 
enjoy  exemption  from  these  destructive  diseases. 

The  circumstances  which  are  considered  necessary  for  the  de- 
velopment of  the  malarial  miasm,  marsh-fever  poison,  are  a 
quantity  of  decaying  vegetable  matter,  with  an  appropriate  de- 
gree of  ^varmtli  and  moisture.  The  vegetable  matter  is  subject 
to  some  doubt;  it  certainly  exists  in  all  marshes  in  sufficient 
abundance,  but  the  diseases  under  consideration  have  been  ob- 
served in  situations  where  decaying  vegetable  matter  is  rather 
scarce;  however,  it  is  not  perhaps  absent  anywhere  except  in  the 
burning  craters  of  volcanoes.  And  again,  immense  masses  of 
vegetable  matter  decay  without  producing  any  disease. 

(254.)  Intermittents,  remittents,  pernicious  fevers,  and  conges- 
tive fevers,  all  occur  in  the  same  place,  at  the  same  time ;  the 
cases  of  mild  intermittent,  by  aggravation,  becoming  remittent 
in  their  progress ;  and  the  congestive  and  remittent  frequently 
become  intermittent  in  their  course  of  melioration.  We  will 
mention  in  succession  the  most  important  circumstances  connected 
wdth  the  origin  of  these  diseases. 

I.  The  malarial  miasm  requires  for  its  development  an  appro- 
jyriate  degree  of  moisture.  The  soil  may  be  too  dry  to  produce 
it ;  as  the  deserts  of  Arabia  and  Africa,  and  elevated  slopes  of 
land  nearly  everywhere.  And  again,  the  soil  may  be  too  wet  to 
produce  it ;  hence  we  notice  in  very  wet  seasons  the  overflown 
marshes,  wdiere  it  usually  prevails,  are  healthy,  and  the  higher 
lands  become  infected.  The  lighthouse  keepers  about  the  mouths 
of  the  ^Iississij)pi  are  exemi>t  from  these  diseases,  probably  be- 
cause their  marshes  are  mostly  submerged. 

II.  A  rather  high  summer  temperature,  of  at  least  one  month\s 
duration,  seems  necessary  to  produce  this  miasm,  in  any  degree  of 
strength  likely  to  impair  health.  Hence  these  diseases  are  nearly 
unknown  hi  elevated  mountains  where  the  temperature  is  uni- 


§  254.  ]  MALARIA.  185 

foniily  cool,  as  well  as  in  countries  like  New  England,  Canada, 
and  I^abrador,  where  the  summer,  though  sufficiently  warm,  is 
very  short.  The  necessity  of  long-continued  heat  for  the  i)r()(lu('- 
tion  of  this  poison  is  further  illustrated  by  the  o(!cnrrcnce  of  the 
diseases  progressively  worse,  both  in  the  severity  of  the  disetise 
and  the  greater  number  of  casts,  as  the  summer  advances.  They 
are  diseases  of  the  fall  rather  than  of  the  spring  or  summer. 

III.  Tlic  (hu'hncHs  of  night  k  necessary  for  the  development  of 
the  miasm,  or  at  all  events  for  its  action.  The  most  deadly  spots 
in  the  world  M'ith  reference  to  these  diseases  are  visited  with  per- 
fect impunity  in  the  daytime ;  though  to  remain  a  single  night 
would  be  nearly  certain  death.  Thus  the  citizens  of  Charleston, 
South  Carolina,  have  been  accustomed  to  visit  their  plantations  in 
the  daytime,  whenever  they  feel  an  inclination  to  do  so,  but 
they  are  very  sure  of  a  dangerous  attack  of  country  fever  if  they 
reuiaiu  over  night,  except  in  the  winter  season.  Our  squadron 
on  the  African  station  enjoys  complete  exemption  from  this  pest, 
since  the  regulation  is  uniforuily  enforced  which  prohibits  any 
officer  or  man  from  being  on  shore  after  sunset.  The  country 
prejudice  against  night  air  is  well  founded. 

IV.  The  miasm  seems  incapable  of  being  treinsmitted  any  great 
distance  from  its  source,  though  it  must  reach  the  body  principally 
through  the  atmosphere.  It  is  either  diluted  in  the  atmosphere 
to  such  a  degree  as  to  be  harmless,  or  it  is  rapidly  decomposed. 
I  can  find  no  sufficient  evidence  of  its  ever  having  been  wafted, 
under  any  circumstances,  to  a  ship  anchored  as  much  as  a  mile 
from  the  shore.  But  there  are  abundant  instances  of  perfect  im- 
munity where  vessels  have  been  anchored  in  the  midst  of  infected 
marshes,  for  months  together,  near  the  middle  of  a  river  about  a 
mile  wide. 

V.  The  malaried  miasm  never  affects  the  well-built  parts  of  a 
city.  We  cannot  say  whether  this  immunity  is  due  to  drainage 
and  pavements,  or  whether  the  puhnonary  and  cutaneous  exhala- 
tions of  congregated  people  are  incompatible  with  it,  or  whether 
the  smoke  and  gases  from  the  numerous  culinary  and  other  fires  in 
some  way  destroy  it,  or  whether  each  of  these  exerts  a  salutary 
influence.  But  the  fact  as  stated  appears  to  admit  of  no  reasona- 
ble doubt. 

YI.    Very  slight  obstacles  have  been  known  to  interrujjtthe  diffu- 


186  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  254. 

sion  of  the  mia.w7,  such  as  groves  of  trees,  the  destruction  of  Avhich 
has  rendered  uninhabitable  places  previously  healthy. — (Bush.) 

VII.  Afier  exposure  to  the  miasm,  several,  but  an  uncertain 
number,  of  days  elapse  before  any  symptoms  of  the  disease  are  no- 
ticed. While  the  system  is  thus  charged  M'ith  the  poison,  slight 
causes  of  excitement,  severe  labor,  exposure  to  cold  or  to  the  heat 
of  the  sun  will  immediately  produce  an  attack. 

The  malarial  miasm  produces  various  forms  of  disease,  so  va- 
rious that  it  is  very  hard  to  comprehend  that  they  all  are  due  to 
the  same  cause,  and  they  have  hence  been  called  by  many  dif- 
ferent names.  People  of  ([uict  habits,  long  exposed  to  the  mode- 
rate action  of  a  malarious  atmosphere,  lose  flesh  and  become  im- 
poverished in  blood ;  they  are  weak,  but  are  not  considered  sick  ; 
they  are  suifering  from  malarial  anaemia.  This  is  likely  to  change 
any  day,  in  consequence  of  unnoticed  irregularities,  and  most 
probably  to  a  simple  intermittent,  with  its  chill  and  fever,  and 
sweat,  every  second  day,  the  patient  being  quite  well  during  the 
interval ;  or  it  may  be  every  day,  or  every  third  or  fourth  day ; 
and  the  disease  receiving  new  names  according  to  the  interval 
becomes  a  quotidian,  tertian,  cpiartan,  septan,  etc.  But,  instead 
of  this  simple  intermittent,  with  leisure  to  count  the  days,  we 
may  have  a  pernicious  fever,  an  intermittent  with  violent  and 
dangerous  brain  symptoms  ;  the  patient  becoming  delirious  during 
the  paroxysm,  and  lethargic,  even  to  death,  perhaps  in  the  second 
paroxysm,  or  even  the  first.  The  sudden,  more  concentrated 
action  of  the  poison,  is  much  more  likely  to  produce  other  forms 
of  disease ;  the  paroxysm  comes  every  day,  and  the  patient  is  not 
nearly  well  during  the  interval ;  he  has  a  remission  :  this  is  a 
simple  remittent ;  it  may  vary  greatly  in  severity,  or  it  may  he 
complicated  with  tl>e  brain  symptoms,  violent  delirium,  Avith 
danger  of  lethargic  death  :  it  is  then  a  malignant  remittent.  These 
peculiarities  appear  to  result  from  the  peculiarities  of  constitution 
of  each  individual  patient,  and  from  the  degree  of  concentration 
or  manner  of  application  of  the  miasm  ;  but  there  are  other  com- 
plications :  the  jiatient  may  have  been  defectively  nourished,  and 
Ave  shall  have  malarial  fever  with  scorbutic  complications;  he 
may  have  some  of  the  characteristic  syniptoms  of  typhoid  fever, 
malarial  fever  with  typhoid  complication  ;  if  patients  be  crowded, 
as  has  often  been  the  case,  we  are  pretty  sure  of  typhus  fever  com- 


255.  ] 


MALARIA. 


187 


plication,  a  terrific  contagious  pestilence  brcaki no;  out  in  the  midst 
of  the  patients.  The  foregoing  are  the  principal  circumstances 
^vhich  vary  the  character  of  malarial  fevers,  and,  as  these  few 
elements  admit  of  almost  infinite  variations,  it  is  not  strange  tliat 
many  kinds  of  malarial  fever  are  described  under  different  names. 
Nearly  every  unhealthy  place  in  the  world  has  a  name  for  its 
fever :  hence  African  fever,  Bengal,  Bulam,  Carthagena,  Madras, 
Walcheren,  Whampoa  fever,  etc.  In  our  army  reports  the  com- 
plicated types,  typhus,  typhoid,  adynamic,  scorbutic,  and  malig- 
nant, are  l)lended  together  under  the  simple  designation,  camp 
fever.  Sometimes  very  intractable  malarial  diarrhea  seems  to 
result  from  the  action  of  this  poison,  more  especially  from  the 
use  of  bad  water  in  malarious  districts. 

The  following  figures  from  reports  in  the  Surgeon-General's 
office,  showing  the  number  of  cases  of  malarial  fevers,  and  gun- 
shot wounds  and  other  injuries,  and  deaths  from  these  diseases 
and  wounds  in  the  United  States  army  during  the  first  two  years 
of  the  war,  indicate  sufficiently  the  importance  of  the  study  of 
these  diseases : 


There  were  reported  during  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1862: 

Malarial  fevers, 

Gunshot  wounds, 

Total  wounds  and  accidents, 

Total  diseases  and  wounds, 

During  the  year  ending  June  30,  1863 : 

Malarial  fevers, 

Gunshot  wounds, 

Total  wounds  and  injuries, 

Total  diseases  and  wounds, 


Cases. 

Deaths. 

146,605 

6,554 

17,496 

4,421 

44,886 

4,857 

878,918 

19,040 

327,739 

14,121 

55,974 

8,775 

98,475 

10,142 

1,171,803 

52,152 

(255.)  In  discussing  somewhat  fully  the  phenomena  and  causes 
of  malarial  fevers,  we  have  suggested  the  most  important  meas- 
ures of  prevention.  We  should  never  spend  the  night,  or  even 
a  part  of  the  night,  unnecessarily,  in  the  infectious  locality.  In 
the  central  parts  of  a  city,  or  on  board  of  ship  anchored  a  mile 
from  the  shore,   we  are    certainly  safe  from    these  destructive 


188 


NAVAL    HYGIENE. 


[  §  255. 


fevers.  At  Wluunpoa,  near  Canton,  China,  there  arc  a  number 
of  ship-fliandlcrs  and  others,  Avho,  with  their  families,  are  quite 
heahiiy  liviii<;'  on  board  hulks  anchored  in  the  stream,  though  a 
single  night  on  shore  would  be  nearly  certain  death  to  them.  In 
anchorino-  in  a  river  it   is  desirable  to  anchor  near  the  middle  of 


Fig.  34. 


Anchorage  in  a  river. 

the  stream,  and,  if  possible,  opposite  a  fork  ;  for,  besides  the 
additional  breadth  of  water  at  such  points,  the  breeze  conforming 
in  its  direction  with  one  or  another  of  the  branches,  more  con- 
stantly reaches  the  ship  thus  situated.  Persons  obliged  to  spend 
the  night  in  an  infectious  district  should  use  such  screens  as  they 
can  procure  against  night-air,  even  a  mosquito-curtain ;  and  they 
should  avoid  much  exertion,  or  exposure  to  the  sun.  It  is  ad- 
visable, under  such  circumstances,  to  take  a  small  dose  of  quinine 
every  day  as  a  preventive.  Quinine,  in  pretty  large  doses,  fre- 
quently repeated,  has  enabled  recent  African  explorers  to  pass 
through  terrific  localities. 

In  most  European  countries,  the  peasants  who  cultivate  land 
thus  unhealthy  live  in  villages  in  selected  healthy  spots,  and  walk 
to  their  labors  in  the  field  every  morning  to  return  to  their  vil- 
lages before  night.  Some  such  arrangement  must  be  adopted  by 
our  own  people  before  Florida  or  even  Eastern  Virginia  can  be 
fairly  settled  up.  This  plan  has  social  advantages  over  the  usual 
one,  which  isolates  the  farmer's  family  among  his  fields. 


§  255.  ]  MALARIA.  189 

It  appears  tliat  tlic  malarial  })oison  is  soluble  in  water,  and  it 
is  thus  carried  into  the  soil  ;  at  any  rate  it  often  exists  in  the  soil 
to  a  dangerous  degree.  'J1ins  tlie  turning  up  of  new  soil  for 
cultivation  has  proved  very  fattd  to  residents  of  the  neighbor- 
hood. I  remember  to  have  visited  a  small,  steep,  rocky  island, 
in  the  Bay  of  Panama,  otherwise  quite  hetdthy,  which  was  very 
quickly  fatal  to  every  one  of  the  few  workmen  who  first  at- 
tempted to  remain  on  it  at  night,  after  there  was  a  portion  of  its 
surface  levelled  for  a  coal  heap  ;  and  a  few  months  subsequently 
the  island  was  occupied  with  difficulty.  Fatal  casualties  of  this 
kind  may  always  be  avoided,  if  the  workmen  will  merely  spend 
their  nights  in  a  healthy  place. 

We  have  now  pretty  well  determined  the  means  of  avoiding 
malarial  miasm  and  its  consequences ;  but  human  nature  inter- 
poses obstacles.     AVe  see  men  going  to  nearly  certain  death  ;  we 
reason,  we  explain,  we  argue ;  and  a  man  who  has  never  studied 
the  subject  suggests  his  "  I  should  think  "  in  opposition  to  us. 
The  ignorant  man's  "I  should  think"  may  carry  the  day  against 
us,  and  our  hygienic  precautions  go  for  nothing,  except  that  we 
can  sometimes  use  the  privilege  of  saving  ourselves.     AVe  see 
this  in  every  city  over  the  land ;  this  ignorant  "  I  should  think  " 
controls  legislation  and  is  slaying  its  myriads.     We  have  the 
same  difficulty  in  the  military  service.     Expeditions  are  planned, 
topographical  engineers  are  consulted  about  visible  obstacles,  but 
no  reasonable  calculations  are  made  for  the  diseases,  which  even 
in  campaigns  of  hard-fought  battles  will  destroy  three  times  as 
many  men  as  all  the  bullets.     The  medical  man  is  not  consulted 
till  after  the  mischief  is  done,  the  men  sick  and  dying.     The 
surgeon  bv  his  reports  then  suggests  that  the  force  is  being  weak- 
ened, and  may  hint  at  the  cause.     The  subject  is  discussed  by 
those  in  autliority,  who  knowing  very  little  about  the  sul>ject, 
their  discussion  is  apt  to  end  in  something  very  like  the  old-fash- 
ioned "  I  should  think."     I  have  always  found  the  most  effective 
way  to  manage  this  business  is,  to  set  up  prejudices  in  the  right 
direction,  by  discreet  social  conversation,  and  when  this  produces 
nothing,  to  follow  it  up  by  a  report  if  necessary,  the  occasion  for 
which  may  be  explained,  by  stating  the  propriety  of  putting 
certain  views  formally  on  record  before  going  into  such  risks  as 
are  contemplated.     Such   reports  should  state  the  case  in  good 


190  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  255. 

terse  language,  and  conclude  with  a  recommendation  too  pointed 
to  be  evaded.  If  this  do  not  succeed,  it  is  understood  that  a  copy 
may  go  with  comments  to  the  files  of  the  department ;  and  the 
responsibility  of  a.  swee})ing  pestilence  is  in  the  right  })lace  as 
nearly  as  we  can  make  it  so.  Sometimes  our  recommendations 
may  involve  alterations  in  the  plans  of  a  department,  and  then 
commanding  officers  feel  that  they  must  have  such  reports  before 
they  are  safe  in  acting — even  ask  for  them.  The  best  illustration 
which  I  remember  of  the  manner  in  whicli  this  has  to  be  done 
occurred  in  China  some  years  ago.  We  were  anchored  in  the 
Pearl  River,  above  Canton,  opposite  Macao  Pass,  and  the  cap- 
tain, whom  I  had  pretty  w^ell  indoctrinated  previoasly  on  the 
subject  of  rice  swamps,  sunset  boats,  and  night  air,  mentioned 
that  he  had  orders  to  observe  the  tides  in  this  part  of  the  river, 
and  hinted  at  the  difficulty  of  finding  a  suitable  place  for  a  tide- 
staff,  the  edge  of  a  rice-field  appearing  to  be  the  only  available 
place. 

"  We  are  healthy  here ;  cannot  we  get  a  j^ost  or  two  down 
somewhere  on  a  bar,  at  a  distance  from  the  shore  ?" 

"  The  current  is  strong ;  it  would  be  in  the  way ;  boats  would 
run  against  it  and  tear  it  up." 

"  Perhaps  you  might  get  observations  enough  in  the  daytime?" 

'■'•  Hardly ;  we  may  not  be  here  long,  and  the  work  should  not 
be  half  done." 

"  Leaving  all  risk  of  sickness  out  of  the  question,  how  would 
you  arrange  it  ?" 

"  Place  a  tide-gauge  at  the  nearest  point  to  the  ship,  with  two 
men,  and  relieve  them  by  other  two  at  mealtimes." 

''  A  month  of  such  observations  would  cost  us  about  eight 
lives." 

"Oh,  no." 

"  Yes ;  the  first  set,  six  men,  down  in  one  week,  and  others  at 
the  same  rate ;  twenty -six  down  in  a  montli,  one-third  to  die — 
eight  and  two-thirds ;  the  calculation  a  little  strong,  perhaps,  so 
Ave  will  throw  off  the  fraction — eight  deaths  a  month." 

"Well;  but  we  must  do  something." 

"  Men  should  not  spend  a  night  in  that  swamj);  they  can  pull 
up  to  the  staff  at  tlie  right  moment,  which  surely  can  be  antici- 


§  255.  ]  MALARIA.  191 

patetl,  make  their  observations,  and  pull  out  into  the  ri\er  again, 
back  to  the  ship  if  they  have  time." 

"The  current  is  very  strono- ;  hard  Avork,  and  no  rest." 

"They  had  better  spend  the  niuht,  if  need  be,  pulling  against 
the  current  in  the  middle  of  the  river." 

"  Well ;  we  will  try  it  so." 

The  plan  was  tried  and  I  soon  heard  that  it  only  required  fif- 
teen to  twenty  minutes  to  pull  ashore  on  slack  water,  make  the 
observations,  and  return.  There  was  no  difficulty  about  it.  The 
observations  were  continued  for  several  months ;  as  long  as  there 
was  any  motive  for  continuing  them,  and  the  results  are  recorded 
in  the  history  of  the  Japan  expedition.  This  little  conversation 
doubtlessly  saved  several  lives,  for  without  it  the  men  would 
have  been  spending  nights  in  the  rice-field  before  I  should  have 
heard  anything  about  the  tidal  observations.  This  kind  of  socia- 
bility must  be  discreet;  the  most  important  of  all  the  official 
duties  of  the  medical  officer  must  be  performed  by  stealth ;  to  at- 
tempt it  otherwise  is  to  excite  such  opposition  that  it  cannot  be 
performed  at  all.  On  the  African  station  we  are  greatly  assisted 
by  the  following — 

GENEEAL  OEDEE. 

Sanitary  Regulations  for  the  United  States  Squadron  on  the  Coast  of  Africa. 

1.  No  officer  or  man  will  be  permitted  to  be  on  shore  before  sunrise  or  after 
sunset,  or  to  sleep  there  at  night.  This  rule  applies  not  only  to  the  continental 
coast  but  to  the  Cape  de  Verde  Islands. 

2.  No  United  States  vessel  will  ascend  or  anchor  in  any  of  the  African  rivers, 
except  upon  imperative  public  service. 

3.  Boat  excursions  up  rivers  and  hunting  parties  on  shore  are  forbidden. 

4.  Vessels,  when  possible,  will  anchor  at  a  reasonable  distance  from  shore, 
far  enough  not  to  be  influenced  by  the  malaria  floated  ofl'  by  the  land  breeze. 

5.  Convalescents  from  fever  and  other  diseases  (when  condemned  by  medical 
survey)  are  to  be  sent  to  the  United  States  with  the  least  possible  delay. 

6.  When  the  general  health  of  a  ship's  company  shall  be  reported  as  im- 
paired by  cruising  on  the  southern  or  equatorial  portion  of  the  coast,  the  earli- 
est possible  opportunity  will  be  given  them  to  recruit,  by  transferring  the  ship 
for  a  time  to  the  Canaries  or  other  windward  islands  of  the  station. 

7.  Boat  and  shore  duty,  involving  exposure  to  sun  and  rain,  is  to  be  per- 
formed, so  far  as  the  exigencies  of  the  service  will  admit,  by  "  Kroomen  "  em- 
ployed for  that  purpose. 

8.  All  possible  protection  from  like  exposure  is  to  be  afforded  to  the  ship's 
company  on  board,  and  the  proper  clothing  and  diet  of  the  crew,  as  well  as  the 


192  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  256. 

ventilation  and  care  of  the  decks,  will  be  made  a  frequent  subject  for  tlie  in- 
spection and  advice  of  medical  officers. 

9.  These  regidations  are  to  be  considered  as  permanent,  and  each  command- 
ing officer  of  the  squadron,  on  retiring  from  the  station,  will  transfer  them  to 
his  successor. 

(256.)  In  order  to  enforce  our  hygienic  precepts  and  to  prove 
that  we  are  teaching  no  new  doctrines  on  this  subject,  the  follow- 
ing quotations  from  an  excellent  old  book  are  introduced : 

Another  evil,  less  known  and  less  suspected,  but  not  less  dangerous,  is  the 
sending  of  Europeans  in  open  boats,  after  sunset,  where  the  soil  is  swampy,  or 
where  there  are  great  night-fogs.  The  duty  alone  of  fetching  fresh-killed 
butcher's  meat  at  night  for  the  use  of  the  ship's  companies  in  the  East  and 
West  Indies  has  destroyed  every  year  several  hundred  seamen.  In  those  parts 
of  the  world,  butcher's  meat  must  be  brought  on  board  at  night,  immediately 
after  it  is  killed,  otherwise  it  will  not  be  fit  for  use  next  day.  But  surely  a  con- 
tract for  sending  it  on  board  ....  might  be  made  with  the  natives,  .... 
and  it  ought  to  be  considered  that  this  trifling  sum  is  advanced  for  the  preser- 
vation of  many  lives.  During  the  sickly  season  at  Batavia,  a  boat  belonging 
to  the  Medway,  which  attended  shore  every  night,  was  manned  three  times 
successively,  not  one  having  survived  that  service,  ....  so  that  at  length  the 
officers  were  obliged  to  employ  none  but  natives  of  the  country  on  that  business. 
Great  numbers  of  men  have  perished  from  being  employed  in  this  manner  at 
Bengal,  where  European  ships  often  anchor  in  the  most  unhealthy  parts  of  the 
river,  and  even  after  the  rainy  season  the  men  are  often  obliged  to  perform  such 
service  in  boats. 

In  a  voyage  to  the  coast  of  Guinea,  performed  in  the  year  1766,  by  the 
Phoenix,  ship  of  war,  the  officers  and  ship's  company  were  perfectly  healthy 
till,  on  their  return  home,  they  touched  at  the  Island  of  St.  Thomas,  in  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea.  Here  the  captain  unfortunately  went  on  shore  to  spend  a  few 
days.  In  the  same  house  were  lodged  the  captain's  brother,  the  surgeon,  some 
midshipmen,  and  the  captain's  servants.  But  in  the  course  of  a  few  days  every 
one,  to  the  number  of  seven,  who  had  slept  in  the  house  were  taken  ill,  and  all 
of  them  died  except  one,  who  returned  to  England  in  a  very  ill  state  of  health. 
The  ship  lay  at  anchor  there  twenty-seven  days,  during  which  time  three  mid- 
shipmen, five  men  and  a  boy  remained  on  shore  for  twelve  nights  to  guard 
water-casks,  under  pretence  that  the  islanders  would  steal  them ;  all  of  these 
were  likewise  taken  ill,  and  two  only  escaped  with  life.  At  that  island  only 
those  who  slept  on  shore  were  taken  ill ;  no  other  man  of  the  ship's  company 
was  seized  with  any  distemper  during  their  stay.  Even  during  the  whole  voyage, 
except  these,  only  one  man  died,  and  he  was  killed  by  accident.  None  of  those 
who  slept  on  shore  escaped  the  sickness,  and  of  them  only  three  survived  it. 
While  the  Phoenix  ccmtinued  at  this  place,  twenty  or  thirty  of  her  men  went 
daily  on  shore,  rambling,  hunting,  shooting,  fishing,  bartering  for  provisions, 
wasiiing  linen,  and  otiiorwise  employed,  so  tliat  almost  the  whole  shijj's  company 
of  two  hundred  and  eighty  men  were,  in  their  turns,  on  sliore  upi)ntlie  island  in 


§  256.  ]  MALARIA.  193 

the  daytime,  not  one  of  wlioni  who  returned  at  night  was  taken  ill  or  .suffered 
even  tlie  sliglitest  indisposition. 

In  tlie  year  following,  the  Phcenix  made  another  voyage,  and  happened  again 
to  touch  at  this  island,  where  she  lost  eight  men  out  of  ten  who  had  im])ru- 
dently  remained  all  night  on  shore.  At  the  same  time  the  rest  of  the  ship's 
company  continued  in  perfect  health,  who,  after  spending  the  day  on  shore, 
always  returned  to  their  ship  before  niglit.  On  board  tlie  Hound,  sloop,  then 
in  company,  only  one  man  died  during  the  whole  voyage,  the  officers  having 
been  particularly  careful  not  to  permit  any  of  the  people  to  continue  all  night 
on  shore. 

If  ships  on  their  passage  to  India  touch  at  the  Islands  of  St.  lago  (Cabo 
Verde  Islands),  Madagascar,  Johannes,  Mohilla;  at  Culpee  in  the  River 
Hoogly,  Batavia,  or  Bencoelen,  those  persons  who  go  on  shore  should  always  re- 
turn before  night.  These  places  have  proved  particularly  fatal  to  Europeans 
who  sleep  on  shore. 

It  may  at  first  sight  appear  almost  impracticable  to  find  a  convenient  and 
safe  retreat  from  sickness  which  rages  at  times  in  many  foreign  climates.  Man- 
kind are  more  ready  to  start  difficulties  on  this  subject  than  desirous  to  remedy 
them.  Where  can  that  safe  retreat  be  found  on  the  coast  of  Guinea?  The 
answer  is,  that  all  places  on  that  coast  are  not  equally  unhealthy.  The  English 
liave  found  the  Island  of  Goree  much  more  healthy  than  their  settlements  on 
the  Senegal  and  Gambia. 

When  a  mortal  sickness,  in  the  year  1765,  prevailed  at  Pensacola,  by  which 
a  regiment  newly  arrived  there  lost  one  hundred  and  twenty  men,  and  eleven 
out  of  twelve  of  the  officers'  ladies  are  said  to  have  died,  the  companies  of  the 
men-of-war,  lying  at  a  mile  distant  from  the  shore,  enjoyed  the  most  perfect 
health.  It  is  likewise  remarkable  that  such  gentlemen  as  were  seized  with  this 
fever  at  Pensacola  and  carried  on  board  quickly  recovered,  or,  at  least,  the 
fever,  being  divested  of  its  most  mortal  symptoms,  soon  assumed  the  form  of  an 
intermittent. 

The  just  inference  is  that  if  a  ship  was  fitted  as  a  floating  factory,  and  secured 
at  a  due  distance  from  the  shore,  at  all  places  where  it  may  be  found  necessary 
and  safe,  it  would  be  the  means  of  preserving  every  year  a  multitude  of  lives. 
The  idea  of  a  floating  factory  is  not  new ;  ships,  so  called,  have  been  securely 
moored  in  different  parts  for  the  advantage  of  trade ;  they  are  here  proposed 
for  the  benefit  of  health.  A  floating  factory,  store,  or  residence,  may  be  fitted 
up  in  any  taste  whatever,  either  for  convenience  or  pleasure. — (  Lind.) 


13 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 


YELLOW   FEVER. 


(257.)  Another  most  important  endemic  disease  is  yellow 
fever,  black  vomit,  tt/jihus  icfcrodcs,  nova  j^estis.  This  disease 
seems  to  prevail  in  eveiy  tropical  city,  occasionally  extending  its 
ravages  in  warm  weather  to  some  of  the  cities  of  temperate  cli- 
mates. It  never  occurs  in  the  fields  except  as  persons  escaping 
from  an  infectious  city  carry  with  them  the  seeds  of  disease,  and 
sicken  and  die  anywhere.  It  is  therefore  an  endemic  of  cities  in 
warm  countries.  This  disease  has  perhaps  sometimes  been  con- 
founded with  the  malarial  fevers  ;  but  that  it  has  a  specifically 
diiferent  cause,  we  think  fully  established  by  the  following  con- 
siderations. All  the  acknowledged  forms  of  malarial  fever  are 
occasionally  present  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same  place,  and 
frequently  change  from  one  type  to  the  other  in  their  course 
conveying  irresistibly  to  the  observer  the  impression  that  the  dif- 
ference is  due  to  the  greater  or  less  violent  action  of  the  same 
cause,  and  to  peculiarities  in  the  constitution  of  individual 
patients.  With  yellow  fever  nothing  of  this  kind  is  observed ; 
but  there  are  cases  of  ever}^  degree  of  severity,  some  proving 
fatal  in  a  few  hours,  while  others  are  scarcely  sufficient  to  inter- 
rupt attention  to  business ;  but  none  of  them  exhibit  anything 
like  the  intermittent  character.  The  fact  appears  to  be  that  oc- 
casionally the  morbific  poison,  no  matter  which,  malarial,  yellow 
fever,  small-pox,  typhus,  or  cholera,  assaults  and  overcomes  the 
powers  of  life  with  such  suddenness  that  there  is  actually  no  de- 
velopment of  the  characteristic  symptoms  of  any  of  these  dis- 
eases ;  they  all  act  alike.  The  patient  becomes  faint,  falls,  has 
some  black  evacuations ;  he  is  pulseless,  the  skin  bloodless,  dusky, 
and  shrunken  to  the  bones;  he  expires  in  a  few  minutes,  or  per- 
haps an  hour  after  the  first  appearance  of  disease.  These  are  the 
cases  which,  individually,  it  may  be  impossible  to  discriminate, 


§  257.  ]  YELLOW    FEVER.  195 

and  wc  may  not  be  able  to  say  wlictlier  the  patient  dvin<^  thus 
suddenly  has  died  of  sniall-pox,  yellow  fever,  or  eliolera.  And 
it  does  not  seem  very  imi)ortant,  for  the  sufferer  is  beyond  all 
chance  of  assistance  from  us  from  the  very  l)e,<2;innin<^.  The 
following  may  be  stated  as  laws  of  development  of  the  endemic 
of  tropical  cities : 

I.  Somewhat  protracted  imrm  summer  weather  is  necessary  for 
the  development  of  the  yellow  fever  poison. — Thus,  at  Havana, 
where  there  are  cases  the  year  round,  the  number  of  sick  rapidly 
increases  with  the  warm  weather,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  sum- 
mer. At  New  Orleans,  where  the  disease  appears  regularly  every 
summer,  it  always  declines  with  cool  weather  and  disappears  with 
the  first  frost. 

II.  The  yellow  fever  miasm  is  only  active  during  the  night. — 
This  seems  to  follow  from  the  imnuinity  enjoyed  by  fishermen 
and  truck  farmers,  who  merely  visit  the  city  during  the  day  to 
attend  the  markets.  Instances  having  been  reported  of  strangers 
passing  through  an  infected  city,  without  remaining  over  night,  in 
all  cases,  so  far  as  we  have  heard,  with  impunity.  During  the  epi- 
demic at  Norfolk,  Virginia,  in  1855,  many  persons  went  to  farm- 
houses in  the  neighborhood  to  reside  during  the  continuance  of 
the  disease,  and  visited  the  city  nearly  every  day  throughout  the 
season  with  perfect  impunity,  only  being  careful  to  leave  before 
sunset.     More  evidence  is  needed  on  this  point. 

III.  Yelloiv  fever  is  by  no  means  a  contagious  disease. — This 
is  sufficiently  proved  by  the  custom,  general  since  the  epidemic  of 
1793,  and  probably  before,  of  whole  families,  even  after  some  of 
them  are  fatally  infected,  removing  to  houses  of  friends  in  the 
country.  The  infected  in  this  way  occupy  the  same  room  with 
members  of  the  farmer's  family,  are  nursed  by  them,  and  die 
under  their  care ;  and  no  instance  can  be  found  of  the  disease 
communicated  in  this  way.  Volumes  have  been  written  to  prove 
the  yellow  fever  to  be  contagious,  and  other  volumes  to  prove  the 
contrary ;  but  it  is  not  necessary  for  our  purpose  further  to  refer 
to  them.  During  the  epidemic  at  Norfolk,  steamboats  plied 
regularly  every  day,  except  Sundays,  to  Baltimore,  merely  avoid- 
ing their  old  wharf,  which  was  in  the  midst  of  the  disease ;  they 
landed  about  a  mile  down  the  river,  at  a  place  without  popula- 
tion, and  open  to  the  air  of  the  country.     Hundreds  of  families 


196  NAVAL    HYGTENE.  [  §  257. 

left  by  these  boats,  carrving  with  them  as  muoh  clothing  as  they 
pleased,  and  even  bedding.  They  remained  for  the  season  at 
Baltimore,  Washington,  Richmond,  Carlisle,  Chambersburg,  York, 
Bedford,  Gettysburg,  and  other  places,  many  carrying  in  their 
bodies  the  germs  of  the  fetal  disease  by  which  they  perished 
among  their  hospitable  entertainers ;  but  they  did  not  in  a  single 
instance  communicate  the  disease  to  the  families  among  whom 
they  sojourned. 

His  ]Majest)^'s  ship-of-war  Tweed  being  at  that  time  (during 
the  yellow  fever  of  1764)  in  Cadiz  Bay,  several  of  her  men  were 
taken  ill  on  shore,  but  by  being  carried  on  board  all  of  them  re- 
covered. Neither  did  the  black  vomit  or  any  other  deadly  symp- 
tom of  that  fever  make  its  appearance  in  any  of  the  ships.  The 
dread  of  this  distemper  forced  many  people  of  fashion  to  retire 
into  the  country,  where  they  remained  in  perfect  safety  from  it. — 
[Lind.) 

IV.  The  yellow  fever  poison  may  originate  on  shipboard  inde- 
pendently of  any  communication  with  an  infectious  city. — ISIany 
instances  might  be  mentioned  where  no  possible  communication 
could  have  existed,  as  some  of  the  vessels  had  not  approached 
within  several  miles  of  any  land  whatever.  They  had  merely 
sailed  from  Europe,  not  perhaps  in  the  best  condition  of  stowage 
or  cleanliness,  and  the  disease  broke  out  as  the  vessels  experienced 
the  high  temperature  of  the  tropics. — [La  JRoche.) 

The  ships  which  principally  suifercd  were  either  defective  in 
arrangements  for  cleanliness,  or  had  been  long  in  commission 
without  opportunity  for  thorough  cleansing.  The  last  case  is 
that  of  the  United  States  steamship  Susquehanna,  which,  after 
a  full  cruise  in  the  Mediterranean,  show-ship,  well  holystoned, 
a  pattern  of  neatness  as  ftir  as  visible,  attempted,  in  1858,  to 
continue  her  cruise  in  the  West  Indies ;  but  nearly  as  soon  as 
she  encountered  hot  weather,  the  yellow  fever  made  its  appear- 
ance on  board  and  was  terribly  fatal.  In  some  steamships  the 
disease  has  appeared  to  depend  on  the  faulty  manner  of  placing 
the  machinery,  so  that  the  floor  beneath  the  engines  was  not 
sufficiently  accessible  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning.  Under  these 
circumstances  a  ])ool  of  offensive  mud  is  formed,  principally  of 
worn-out  oil,  and  it  camiot  be  removed  without  removing  the 
engines  entirely. 


§  258.  ]  YELLOW    FEVER.  197 

V.  The  yelJoio  fcvov  infection  sometimes  originates  in  the  decay 
of  accumulations  of  human  excrements  and  e.vuinm — The  city  of 
Canton,  China,  wliich  is  in  precisely  the  climate  for  the  disease, 
and  is  said  to  be  very  filthy,  probably  never  suffers  from  it,  and  , 
the  following  circumstances  may  have  something  to  do  with  its 
immunity.  The  surface  of  the  ground  is  pretty  well  covered 
with  buildings,  and  paved ;  and  the  site  is  so  low  and  level  that 
the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide  washes  out  the  sewers  every  day  ; 
the  excrements  are  assiduously  collected  in  buckets  and  carried 
off  to  manure  the  fields,  so  that  though  these  buckets  frequently 
offend  the  nostrils  of  the  pedestrians,  there  are  no  accumulations 
of  such  material  in  the  city.  The  town  of  Key  West,  Florida 
(Cayo  Hueso),  was  formerly  a  pestilential  place ;  and  a  few  years 
ago  a  board  of  navy  surgeons  were  sent  there  in  the  midst  of  an 
epidemic,  to  investigate  the  matter.  Some  pictures  were  made 
of  these  doctors  approaching  the  wharf  warily,  cocked  hats  on 
their  heads  and  boat-hooks  in  their  hands,  with  wliich  to  feel 
pulses  without  undue  personal  risk.  They,  however,  probably 
learned  in  reference  to  the  place  about  what  every  navy  surgeon 
who  had  ever  been  there  knew  before.  But  they  made  a  report, 
together  with  a  recommendation  that  a  few  ditches  should  be  dug, 
certain  accumulations  of  filth  removed,  and  that  a  general  clean- 
ing up,  draining,  and  whitewashing  should  be  practiced.  From 
that  time  to  the  present.  Key  West  has  been  a  comparatively 
healthy  place.  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore,  which 
formerly  suffered  occasionally  from  this  disease,  have  been  en- 
tirely clear  of  it,  since  they  have  been  abundantly  and  conve- 
niently supplied  with  water  from  the  rivers,  so  that  constant 
streams  flow  through  all  the  streets  and  sewers. 

(258.)  If  we  would  prevent  the  yellow  fever,  or  check  its 
ravages,  we  must  reflect  upon  the  circumstances  under  which  it 
usually  occurs,  and  note  what  has  been  done  in  Canton,  Baltimore, 
Philadelphia,  and  New  York.  Such  measures,  more  thoroughly 
carried  out,  are  necessary  at  New  Orleans,  Key  West,  and  Ha- 
vana. In  regard  to  the  question  of  quarantine  in  this  disease, 
we  may  safely  say,  that  all  restraints  which  prevent  the  sick  from 
reaching  a  healthy  locality  are  absurd,  and  with  our  present 
knowledge  on  the  subject,  outrageously  cruel,  little  better  than 
deliberate  murder.     A  yellow^  fever  patient,  even  carrying  his 


198  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  260. 

elotliiuo:  antl  bedclinji'  with  him,  has  never  been  known  to  com- 
municate the  disease  to  another  person  in  a  healthy  locality,  and 
the  experiment  has  been  tried  thousands  of  times.  But  in  regard 
to  a  ship,  it  may  be  full  of  poison ;  and  in  such  a  case  it  should 
not  be  moored  in  a  close  dock,  with  dwelling-houses  about  it,  nor 
should  the  cargo  be  discharged  in  sucli  a  situation.  Families 
living  near  vessels  in  this  condition,  and  especially  workmen  em- 
ployed on  board,  have  frequently  lost  their  lives  by  such  reck- 
lessness. There  seems,  however,  to  be  no  great  risk  in  discharg- 
ing such  a  ship,  under  the  direction  of  competent  inspectors, 
away  from  populous  places ;  for  systematic  ventilation,  chlorine 
fumigations,  and  the  light  of  day  have  been  found  capable  of 
rapidly  decomposing  or  dissipating  the  poison.  The  safest  and 
most  economical  way  in  our  climate  is  to  wait  for  hard  frost. 

(259.)  To  prevent  yellow  fever  on  board  ship,  we  must  prac- 
tice those  measures  which  are  required  to  prevent  diseases  gener- 
ally; cleanliness,  purity,  ventilation,  good  food,  and  cheerful 
social  influences,  are  the  necessary  means.  The  cleanliness  must 
not  be  of  that  kind  which  we  sometimes  describe  as  being  "skin- 
deep."  It  is  of  no  avail  to  scour  and  scrub  while  the  debris  of 
decaying  cargo  is  accumulating  in  the  hold.  When  a  ship  is 
newly  fitted,  it  is  pure  in  this  respect,  but  it  cannot  possibly  re- 
main so.  The  deterioration  is  steadily  progressive  from  day  to 
day,  though  it  may  be  greatly  retarded  by  assiduous  care.  When- 
ever it  is  necessary  to  remove  articles  from  the  hold,  there  is  an 
opportunity  to  collect  and  remove  more  or  less  of  exposed  frag- 
ments and  dirt.  When  arrangements  are  being  made  to  receive 
new^  stores,  or  new  cargo,  it  is  convenient  to  break  out  and  rear- 
range the  old,  collecting  dirt  and  fragments,  using  very  freely 
chloride  of  lime  and  whitewash,  particularly  about  secret  recesses. 
It  seems  impossible  to  avoid  tedious  repetitions  when  Ave  under- 
take to  indicate  the  means  of  preserving  health,  as  Me  are  often 
permitted  merely  to  vary  the  form  of  expression,  no  matter  what 
the  disease.  The  universal  prophylactic  is  purity,  material  and 
moral  purity,  personal  and  social  purity,  at  home  and  abroad,  by 
night  and  by  day,  of  air  and  of  watei-,  in  all  places  and  at  all 
times,  purity. 

(2G0.)  If  circumstances  prevent  a  ])erson  from  leaving  a  place 
where  the  yellow  fever  prevails,  he  should  select  his  residence  in 


§  260.  ]  YELLOW    FEVER.  199 

the  hiohest  and  healthiest  available  spot;  should  sleep  preferably 
in  the  highest  part  of  the  house,  avoid  the  night  air,  using  mos- 
quito bars  rather  than  nothing  for  its  exclusion ;  use  nutritious 
and  wholesome  food,  avoid  fiitiguing  exercise,  exposure  to  the 
sun,  and  excesses  of  all  kinds;  maintain  a  cheerful,  confident 
temper,  for  which  a  clear  conscience  and  earnest  Christian  feeling, 
the  baptism  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  appear  to  be  the  most  essential 
circumstances.  If  it  be  necessary  to  enter  an  infected  spot,  go  in 
the  daytime  and  do  not  stay  long.  Attempts  to  guard  against 
the  disease  by  low  diet  and  physic  are  worse  than  useless,  as  they 
enfeeble  the  system  and  render  it  less  able  to  resist  the  action  of 
the  poison. — (§  277.) 


CHAPTER   XXIV. 

SCORBUTUS. 

(261.)  Scorbutus,  .sea-soiir\y,  having  been  a  most  terrible  en- 
demic disease  on  shipboard,  during  the  last  and  preceding  cen- 
turies, comes  naturally  to  be  noticed  here.  The  common  Eng- 
lish name,  scurvy,  is  rather  objectionable,  as  it  is"  not  necessarily 
a  scurfy  or  scabby  disease ;  and  the  translators  of  the  Bible  (Le- 
viticus xxi,  20,  and  xxii,  22)  appear  to  use  the  word  scurvy  as 
synonymous  with  scabies  or  itch,  to  which  scorbutus,  the  true 
sea-scurvy,  has  no  sort  of  resemblance.  We  greatly  prefer  the 
term  scorbutus,  though  it  may  be  a  barbarous  Scandinavian  word 
Avith  a  Latin  termination.  It  is  the  name  of  this  specific  disease 
and  of  no  other. 

(262.)  Scorbutus  was  formerly  the  endemic  of  cold  climates, 
as  it  prevailed  extensively  in  all  cold  countries  during  the  winter. 
But  now  that  its  cause  is  known  and  understood,  it  has  ceased  to 
belong  to  the  class  of  endemic  diseases  altogether.  The  cause  of 
this  disease,  undoubtedly,  is  deficiency  of  food,  eitlier  in  quan- 
tity, quality,  or  variety,  so  that  the  digestive  organs  are  incapable 
of  appropriating  sufficient  nutriment.  It  hence  prevailed  ter- 
ribly in  protracted  sieges,  Avhere  poor  food  was  necessarily  used, 
because  better  than  none,  and  variety  was  limited  to  the  small 
number  of  articles  within  reach.  It  was  the  winter  endemic  of 
cold  countries,  till  civilization  and  agriculture  furnished  a  varied 
supply  of  vegetables  and  fruits  for  the  winter  season.  It  must 
have  been  pretty  common  in  England  when  the  Queen  had  to 
send  a  special  messenger  to  Holland  before  she  could  obtain  the 
necessary  material  for  a  salad. 

Cold  with  moisture  is  likewise  an  exciting  cause,  by  rendering 
a  larger  amount  of  food  necessary.  Hence  when  seamen  have 
been  but  indifferently  nourished  by  all  that  their  digestive  organs 
could  appropriate  in  mild  weather,  they  have  generally  suffered 


§  263.  ]  SCORBUTUS.  201 

severely  by  running;  into  enld  and  stormy  regions  on  tlie  same 
diet;  the  cold  and  additional  exertion  rendering  a  greater  amount 
of  nutriment  necessary.  Other  causes  have  been  suggested  and 
disproved,  some  of  which  it  may  be  \\c\\  to  mention.  Sir  Gilljert 
Blane,  as  late  as  1785,  thought  it  might  be  contagious.  The  old 
navigators,  many  of  them,  supposed  it  a  terrific  pestilence  of  the 
climate  in  which  they  happened  to  be.  Salt  and  salt  food  have 
been  assigned  as  the  cause ;  but  Lord  Anson's  crew  suffered  on 
the  west  coast  of  INIexico,  when  living  on  fresh  meat ;  the  Russian 
army,  at  the  siege  of  Azof,  suffered  when  they  had  no  salt  meat ; 
and  besides,  salt-makers  are  not  peculiarly  subject  to  the  disease. 
Salt  meat,  especially  if  long  kept,  on  account  of  its  progressively 
increasing  hardness,  and  consequent  defective  digestion  not  afford- 
ing due  nutriment  of  itself,  may  thus  be  a  cause.  Within  a  few 
years,  it  has  appeared  to  some,  reflecting  that  the  sailor's  beef  is 
all  salted  with  soda  salts,  in  the  midst  of  an  ocean  of  soda  salts, 
the  need  of  sufficient  potash  for  the  healthy  constitution  of  the 
tissues  might  be  the  cause  of  this  disease ;  and  they  suggested 
starch,  containing  the  needed  element,  as  the  appropriate  remedy. 
This  has  been  used  with  great  alleged  benefit.  This  is  a  satisfac- 
tory report  so  far  as  it  goes,  but  we  are  unable  to  understand  why 
starch  on  this  theory  should  be  much  better  than  bread  and  beans, 
usual  articles  of  food  when  the  disease  made  such  havoc. 

(263.)  Of  the  symptoms,  the  phenomena  of  this  disease,  we  need 
not  say  much,  as  nobody  has  really  seen  them  during  the  present 
century,  and  it  is  not  likely  that  they  will  ever  be  seen  again.  A 
full  account  of  them  in  their  varied  forms  is  given  by  Lind,  the 
last  and  best  authority  on  this  subject.  When  after  a  deficiency, 
somewhat  protracted,  of  nutritive  and  varied  diet,  with  total  ab- 
sence of  fresh  food,  we  notice  a  dark  discoloration  of  the  more 
transparent  parts  of  the  skin,  the  lips,  gums,  tongue,  and  eyelids, 
with  purplish  or  yellow  spots  on  various  parts  of  the  body,  we 
are  pretty  sure  of  the  establishment  of  the  scorbutic  tendency ; 
and  if,  in  addition,  we  notice  fetid  ulceration  of  the  gums,  with 
bending  up  and  stiffening  of  the  knees  or  elbows,  we  need  not 
hesitate  to  say  that  the  patient  is  suffering  from  scorbutus,  how- 
ever much  these  symptoms  fall  short  of  the  awful  pestilence,  the 
ravages  of  which  are  so  terrifically  portrayed  in  Hackluyt's  Col- 


202  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  265. 

lection  of  Voyages.  When  the  disease  has  proceeded  so  far  tliere 
Ls  no  time  to  be  lost. 

(264.)  The  only  real  antiscorbutic  remedies  which  we  are  dis- 
posed to  acknowledge  arc  good,  varied,  fresh  food,  and  cheerful 
influences,  cleanliness,  neatness,  and  order. 

The  necessity  for  variety  of  food  seems  to  be  very  imperfectly 
understood.  During  the  early  part  of  this  century  experiments 
were  performed  with  the  object  of  determining  the  comparative 
nutritive  value  of  the  various  proximate  elements  of  meat.  A 
dog  was  fed  with  pure  gelatine  and  water,  and  he  soon  became 
disgusted  with  his  food  and  died  ;  it  was  hence  inferred  that  gela- 
tine was  not  nutritive.  A  similar  experiment  was  tried  with  albu- 
men, and  with  like  result,  and  with  fat  and  the  other  constituents 
of  meat  in  succession.  Xo  one  of  the  constituents,  singly,  being 
capable  of  nourishing  the  animal,  the  inference  followed  that  the 
entire  flesh  is  necessary  for  nutrition.  An  unfortunate  canary 
bird  was  fed  exclusively  on  sugar  and  water,  and  he  soon  became 
blind  and  fell  dead  from  his  perch.  A  poor  bird  fed  exclusively 
on  rice  did  no  better.  It  would  seem  that  many  persons  greatly 
injure  their  health  by  attempting  to  live  on  a  few  articles  of  food 
which  they  deem  wholesome,  instead  of  using  the  variety  in  the 
midst  of  which  we  are  placed,  and  for  which  our  organization 
appears  to  be  adapted.  The  changing  seasons  of  the  year,  with 
their  peculiar  fruits  for  each  month,  if  not  for  each  day  of  the 
month,  seem  to  supply  just  such  a  variety  as  is  required  for 
healthy  nutrition. 

(265.)  Freshncs.^  of  food  is  a  quality  on  Avhich  more  depends 
tlian  could  readily  be  imagined.  The  earlier  voyagers  to  Canada 
found  great  advantage  in  using  the  fresh  foliage  of  the  spruce 
pine,  Abies  canadensis,  which  they  chewed,  infused,  made  into 
beer,  etc.  Captain  Cook  found  equal  advantage  from  the  foliage 
of  a  similar  tree  growing  on  the  island  of  New  Zealand.  Equal 
advantages  have  resulted  in  time  of  need  from  the  use  of  some 
cruciferous  plants  found  growing  about  Hudson's  Bay  and  else- 
where, which  on  this  account  have  received  the  name  of  scurvy 
grass.  When  Lord  Anson  arrived  at  Juan  Fernandez,  Crusoe 
Island,  a  boat's  crew,  who  went  on  shore  for  the  purpose,  loaded 
their  boat  with  any  grass  which  came  in  their  way,  not  caring 


§  265.  ]  SCORBUTUS.  203 

about  the  kind,  but  only  that  it  was  green.  This  mixture  of  weeds 
was  found  as  effectual  as  spruce  boughs  and  spinacli. 

During-  an  experience  of  twenty  years  in  the  navy  I  have  seen 
the  scorbutic  tendency  develoi)ed  twice  on  shipboard.  On  the 
first  occasion  the  ship,  the  frigate  Savannah,  was  on  her  return 
from  California,  during  the  Mexican  war.  The  crew  had  had 
very  few  fresh  vegetables,  uot  even  good  beans,  for  nine  months ; 
and  the  salted  and  dried  provisions  had  mostly  been  on  board 
nearly  the  same  time ;  some  of  it  had  been  packed  three  or  four 
years  previously.  As  soon  as  we  reached  the  cold  and  stormy 
weather  of  the  South  Pacific,  the  symptoms  began  to  appear; 
brown  spots,  big  and  little,  about  the  arms  and  legs,  ulcerated, 
fetid,  bleeding  gums,  rheumatic  pains  with  rigidity  and  contrac- 
tion of  the  flexor  muscles.  The  preserved  lemon-juice,  citric  acid, 
wine,  etc.,  in  various  mixtures,  had  a  pretty  extensive  trial  and 
with  great  benefit.  These  articles  had  been  long  kept,  though 
probably  not  so  long  as  the  beef  and  pork.  The  relief  was  but 
partial,  and  a  day's  duty  in  the  cold  on  deck  was  sufficient  to 
renew  or  aggravate  the  symptoms  in  some  of  the  cases.  It  was 
even  noticed  that  many  were  relieved  by  merely  being  excused 
from  duty ;  their  ordinary  diet  was  sufficient  while  they  were  quiet 
and  warm,  but  not  enough  for  the  wants  of  nutrition  when  they 
were  exposed  to  cold  and  labor.  This  scorbutic  disposition  con- 
tinued, though  without  much  actual  suffering,  for  two  or  three 
weeks,  when  we  met  a  whaling  ship,  from  which  we  obtained  a 
basket  of  potatoes.  These  were  distributed,  a  potato  to  each,  on 
condition  that  they  were  to  be  eaten  raw.  The  jack-knives  were 
soon  busy  scraping  them  to  pulp,  which  seemed  to  possess  a  de- 
licious flavor.  The  sore  gums  healed,  the  blotches  disappeared, 
the  legs  and  arms  became  flexible  and  free  from  pain,  and  no 
more  was  heard  of  the  scurvy. 

The  second  occasion  was  on  board  one  of  the  vessels  of  the 
Japan  expedition.  We  sailed  from  New  York  direct  for  the 
Straits  of  Sunda.  The  passage  exceeded  four  months,  during 
which  we  did  not  see  land  except  a  distant  island.  The  latter 
part  of  tlie  passage  was  stormy  and  cold.  When  about  ninety 
days  out,  and  beyond  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  scorbutic 
tendency  became  apparent.  All  our  remedies  only  mitigated  the 
disease  and  kept  it  in  check.     We  could  not  see  that  the  pre- 


204  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  266. 

served  limc-jnifc  was  any  better  than  a  solution  of  crystals  of 
citric  acid,  with  a  little  wine  or  ale.  And  our  canned  meats, 
oxtiiil  soup,  boiled  beef,  roast  beef,  and  roast  mutton,  did  not 
afford  effectual  relief;  but  there  remained  a  number  of  men  who 
had  to  be  excused  from  duty  till  we  arrived  at  the  Straits  of 
Sunda,  when  a  boat-load  of  oranges  and  cocoanuts,  with  a  fcAv 
chickens,  brought  perfect  relief. 

(266.)  This  mere  freshness  of  food  has  an  importance  which 
we  find  it  difficult  to  comprehend.  The  proximate  principles  of 
vegetable  food,  so  far  as  we  know  them — sugar, starch,  and  gum; 
the  vegetable  acids,  alkalies,  salts,  and  oils — seem  ciipable  of  per- 
fect preservation  for  very  long  periods ;  but  it  is  found  that  after 
such  preservation  they  are  incapable  of  affording  proper  nutri- 
ment without  something  fresh — some  animal  or  vegetable  sub- 
stance but  recently  deprived  of  life.  This  important  quality 
probably  resides  in  the  nitrogenous,  the  azotized  material,  held 
in  solution  in  the  juices  or  sap  of  vegetables.  This  nitrogenous 
material,  which  appears  to  be  a  principal  agent  in  the  decay  of 
all  organic  tissues,  seems  likewise  necessary  to  their  proper  diges- 
tion as  food. 

Nitrogen,  in  fact,  seems  as  interesting  in  its  relations  as  any 
other  of  the  recognized  elementary  substances,  though  the  chem- 
ists do  characterize  it  mostly  by  negative  properties, — without 
affinities  or  repulsions — may  be  mechanically  mixed  but  not 
chemically  combined  with  anything  by  any  known  process.  It 
constitutes  nearly  four-fifths  of  the  atmosphere,  where  it  is  in  the 
condition  of  mechanical  mixture  or  diffusion.  The  only  known 
power  in  nature  by  which  it  is  brought  extensively  into  combina- 
tions is  the  influence  of  organic  life.  Vegetables  prettj-  certainly 
and  animals  probably  appropriate  it  directly  from  the  atmosphere, 
as  well  as  from  the  remains  of  preceding  organisms.  Very  few 
vegetables,  if  any,  can  exist  or  grow  without  the  nitrogenous 
compounds  which  they  receive  from  their  predecessors  in  life, 
and  certainly  no  animal  can  exist  without  them.  It  hence  ap- 
pears that  nitrogren  is  found  in  nature  only  in  the  atmosphere,  its 
great  natural  reservoir ;  in  the  tissues  and  fluids  of  organic  beings ; 
and  in  various  stiites  of  chemical  combination  which  result  from 
-the  decay  of  these  tissues  and  fluids. 

The  multitude  of  organic  beingx  on  the  earth,  by  their  excre- 


§  266.  ]  SCORBUTUS.  205 

tions  and  bodily  dcrny,  furnish  an  immense  quantity  and  nntold 
variety  of  these  eombinations,  tlie  iniportanec  of  which  it  is  im- 
possible fully  to  a})preeiate.  Some  of  the  best  understood,  though 
perhaps  not  the  most  imp(H-tant  of  these  eombinations  of  nitro- 
gen, are  the  following:  Ammonia,  of  nitrogen  and  hydrogen; 
nitric  acid,  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen ;  cyanogen,  of  nitrogen  and 
carbon ;  and  ferro-cyanogen,  of  nitrogen,  carbon,  and  iron.  By 
chemical  manipulations  wdth  these  four  an  endless  variety  of  sub- 
stances is  obtained,  having  nitrogen  as  one  of  their  constituents. 
The  vegetable  alkaloids — quinine,  cinchonine,  morphine,  meco- 
nine,  atropine,  daturine,  etc. — universally  have  nitrogen  as  one 
of  their  constituents.  There  are  a  vast  number  of  other  nitro- 
genous substances,  the  result  of  vital  actions  of  the  innumerable 
being-s  which  inhabit  the  earth.  Some  of  these  we  have  been 
enabled  to  study  and  comprehend  in  some  degree ;  others  essen- 
tial to  our  existence  will,  doubtless,  elude  human  comprehension 
forever.  It  is  probably  to  some  of  these,  so  delicate  in  their 
chemical  affinities  as  to  be  incapable  of  protracted  preservation, 
that  we  are  to  look  for  the  necessity  of  fresh  food.  Or  is  it  that 
some  spark  of  molecular  life  still  adheres,  for  a  time,  to  dead 
organisms,  and  that  this  is  a  necessary  element  of  nutriment  ? 

However  this  may  be,  or  whatever  may  be  the  cause,  a  small 
quantity  of  fresh  food,  some  animal  or  vegetable  substance  re- 
cently removed  from  the  domain  of  life,  seems  absolutely  neces- 
sary for  the  preservation  of  health.  And  it  is  not  by  the  amount 
of  nutriment  that  it  furnishes,  but  by  some  peculiar  stimulus 
which  it  supplies  to  the  powers  of  assimilation,  enabling  them  to 
appropriate  other  food ;  for  a  potato,  an  onion,  or  a  handful  of 
weeds,  no  matter  what,  so  that  it  is  fresh  and  not  really  poison- 
ous, answers  the  purpose. 

The  universal  use  of  potatoes  and  other  fresh  vegetables,  fur- 
nishes the  needful  amount  of  fresh  material  for  the  most  part. 
The  preserved  lemon-juice,  so  much  used  in  the  British  naval 
service,  no  doubt  has  its  use,  and  when  freshly  prepared  is  fully 
as  good  as  any  common  grass,  but  we  have  no  doubt  that  its 
useful  properties  are  lost  or  greatly  impaired  by  long  keeping. 
The  various  processes  for  preserving  food  with  as  much  as  possible 
of  the  condition  of  fresh  vegetables  and  meats  have  much  utility,  as 
they  afford  means  of  w^arding  off  disease.    These  we  have  described 


206  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  267. 

elsewhere,  together  with  a  contrivance  for  supplying  fresh  vege- 
tables for  a  salad  at  sea. 

(267.)  Cheerfulness,  cleanliness,  neatness,  and  good  order  are 
of  the  fii'st  importance  to  health  on  shipboard  and  everywhere 
else,  but  here  we  find  it  necessary  to  suggest  a  caution.  One  of 
the  symptoms  of  scorbutus  is  an  indisposition,  almost  an  inabilit}^, 
to  move :  this  has  been  mistaken  for  laziness,  morosencss,  and 
skulking;  and  death  has  occurred  suddenly  from  driving  the 
sufferer  on  deck  with  the  view  of  promoting  cheerfulness  and 
activity.     Laziness  is  a  consequence  not  the  cause  of  this  disease. 


CHAPTER     XXy. 

OTHER  ENDEMICS— PLICA  POLOXICA — BROXCHOCELE CRETIN- 
ISM  ELEPHANTIASIS  ARABUM — CHOLERA  INFANTUM MILK 

SICKNESS — GUINEA  WORM — TRICHINOSIS— TARANTISMUS. 

(268.)  The  other  endemic  diseases,  having  little  reference  to 
our  subject,  may  be  noticed  briefly. 

Plica  polonica  is  a  curious  disease  of  the  hair,  which  occurs 
principally  in  Poland,  though  it  is  occasionally  met  with  in  other 
countries.  It  is  hence  considered  the  endemic  of  Poland.  The 
roots  of  the  hair  are  enlarged  and  become  very  sensitive,  so  much 
so  that  occasionally  the  hair  is  painful  to  the  touch.  The  hair  at 
the  same  time  grows  very  rapidly  and  is  glued  together  by  a 
viscid,  fetid  secretion,  so  that  combing  is  quite  out  of  the  question. 
It  hence  becomes  the  habitation  of  crowds  of  vermin,  and  the 
suifercr  is  a  most  disgusting  and  repulsive  object.  This  disease, 
like  other  peculiarities  of  physical  organization,  is,  perhaps,  in 
some  degree,  hereditary,  but  it  seems  that  the  principal  cause  is 
to  be  found  in  national  habits, — long  hair  and  the  want  of  clean- 
liness. It  would  appear  that  the  disease  may  be  prevented  and 
even  cured  by  the  cautious  and  systematic  use  of  scissors,  soap, 
combs,  brushes,  etc.,  not  forgetting  to  use  a  little  mercurial  oint- 
ment occasionally  for  the  insects. 

(269.)  Bronchocele,  goitre,  is  a  disease  which  is  seen  in  all  parts 
of  the  world,  but  it  is  very  common  in  Switzerland.  It  is  a 
tumor  in  front  of  the  neck,  an  enlargement  of  the  thyroid  gland. 
The  disease  occasions  but  little  pain  or  uneasiness,  except  when 
the  tumor  becomes  very  large,  and  then  it  may  seriously  impede 
respiration.  The  cause  of  this  disease  is  quite  unknown ;  we 
only  know  that  it  is  endemic  in  Switzerland,  prevailing  more  in 
some  valleys  than  others,  but  without  anything  peculiar  about 
them  which  can  be  indicated  as  the  cause.  The  snow-water 
theory  and  such  like  conjectures  have  been  disproved  by  further 


208  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  271. 

observation.  This  disease  is  certainly  and  promptly  removed  in 
most  conditions  by  the  cautious  use  of  iodine,  and  by  this  means 
may  be  prevented  from  attaining  a  troublesome  size  and  figure. 
But  as  we  know  nothing  of  the  cause,  we  are  not  able  to  suggest 
any  means  of  preventing  this  disease.  We  certainly  should  not 
recommend  to  persons  in  health  the  habitual  use  of  iodine  or  any 
other  medicine,  which  might  produce  worse  consequences  than 
bronchocele. 

(270.)  O'etinism  is  another  and  more  terrible  endemic  of  Swit- 
zerland, prevailing  principally  in  some  of  the  valleys  of  the 
Upper  Elione,  inclosed  by  high  mountains.  Nearly  the  only 
thing  certainly  determined  about  the  cause  of  this  terrible  dis- 
ease is  that  it  occurs  in  some  of  these  beautiful  and  fertile  val- 
leys. This  disease  is  characterized  by  the  small  size  and  defor- 
mity of  the  sufferers,  with  crooked  limbs,  comparatively  large 
heads,  and  weakness  of  intellect,  bordering  on  idiocy.  Poverty, 
with  wretched  and  filthy  habitations,  has  been  suggested  as  the 
cause,  especially  as  persons  in  more  comfortable  circumstances, 
even  in  the  same  villages,  are  much  less  subject  to  the  disease.  It 
is  certainly  hard  to  exaggerate  the  morbific  effects  of  such  causes, 
but  they  ordinarily  produce  very  different  diseases  from  this. 
We  are  more  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  the  disease,  with  its  in- 
tellectual and  bodily  weakness,  prevents  its  subjects  from  acquir- 
ing comfortable  habitations  and  other  comfortable  and  healthful 
appliances.  The  only  circumstance  which  seems  common  to  the 
localities  is  that  they  are  all  deep  valleys  inclosed  by  high  moun- 
tains, such  as  we  may  suppose  to  prevent  the  free  circulation  of 
air,  and  this,  we  are  inclined  to  believe,  is  in  some  way  the  cause. 
We  know  so  little  of  the  cause  of  this  disease  that  we  have  not 
much  to  say  about  the  means  of  avoiding  it.  We  may  safely  rec- 
ommend to  the  people  cultivating  these  valleys  to  select  healthy 
localities  in  the  neighboring  mountains  for  their  villages,  near 
enough  to  enable  them  to  walk  to  their  fields  for  necessary  labor. 

(271.)  Eleplundiasls  arabum  is  a  curious  endemic  disease  in 
many  tropical  countries.  It  is  characterized  by  a  thickening  of 
the  skin,  particularly  about  the  ankles.  This  thickening  extends 
so  much  about  the  limbs  and  becomes  so  enormous  that  the  legs 
are  in  some  instances  fairly  comparable  to  those  of  an  elephant, 
and  hence  the  name  of  the  disease.     It  prevails  in  particular 


§  272.  ]  VERUGAS.  209 

localities,  all  of  which  I  believe  arc  within  the  tropics,  but  there 
are  many  troi)ical  countries  in  whicli  no  such  disease  is  known. 
As  we  know  nothing  of"  tlie  cause  of  this  disease,  except  its  en- 
demic character,  m'c  are  unable  to  suggest  any  means  of  avoiding 
it  in  tlie  localities  where  it  prevails.  \\'e  have  known  persons 
who  had  observed  the  commencement  of  this  disease  to  leave  the 
island  of  Barbadoes,  and  thus  avoid  any  troublesome  increase  of 
this  affliction,  so  long  as  this  exile  from  their  native  country  con- 
tinued. 

(272.)  Cholera  infantum,  the  summer  endemic  of  children  in 
large  cities,  appears  to  be  caused  by  various  circumstances  un- 
favorable to  health,  acting  on  the  impressible  organization  of 
children.  Deficiency  of  daylight,  produced  by  high  buildings 
crowded  together,  an  atmosphere  contaminated  by  decaying  hu- 
man exuviae  and  excrement,  the  consequence  of  crowding  and  de- 
fective ventilation  and  unwholesome  food,  particularly  factitious 
milk  and  the  milk  of  diseased  animals,  appear  to  be  the  principal 
causes  of  this  scourge  of  civilization.  The  only  means  of  avoid- 
ing it  is  to  escape  from  its  causes,  by  placing  children,  during  the 
prevalence  of  this  disease,  in  the  country,  in  the  midst  of  health- 
ful food,  light,  and  air. 

Verugas. — The  Spanish  conquerors  of  Peru  found  a  curious 
endemic  of  warts  (verruca,  a  wart),  and  even  suffered  from  it  in 
one  of  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Rimac,  about  (20)  twenty  leagues 
from  Lima.  The  disease  is  there  yet ;  it  affects  particularly  the 
nose,  the  eyelids,  tlie  ears,  the  hands.  It  is  a  fever,  Avith  an  erup- 
tion of  vascular  tumors  or  bloody  vesicles,  the  size  of  a  pea,  or 
even  an  inch  in  diameter.  These  tumors  are  not  painful,  dry  up 
into  hard  scabs  and  drop  off';  but  if  roughly  handled  or  cut  they 
bleed  profusely.  The  suspected  spring-water  is  found  to  be  very 
pure,  and  a  party  who  went  to  assist  in  getting  the  iron  railroad 
bridge  in  position,  and  took  water  with  them,  brought  back  the 
infection,  and  in  about  a  month  had  verugas.; — {San.  Rep.,  72.) 

StY'idnre  of  Oesophagus — mal  de  engasco — exists  endemically 
in  Southern  Brazil,  district  Limeiras,  province  San  Paulo.  The 
disease  comes  on  gradually  and  ends  in  death  by  starvation  in 
about  a  year  (/"-'.a"?,  hunger).  Can  it  be  that  the  Brazilians  thus 
name  the  district  because  people  there  sometimes  die  of  starva- 
tion?— [San.  Rep.,  74.) 

14 


210  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  275. 

(273.)  3rdk  sickness,  Staggers,  is  the  name  of  a  disease  formerly 
endemic  in  some  portions  of  our  Western  country.  It  was  acute 
poisoning,  caused  by  eating  tlie  flesh,  ])utter,  or  milk  of  cattle 
which  liad  fed  on  a  particular  poisonous  weed,  Rhus  toxicodendron, 
poison  oak.  It  appears  that  under  certain  circumstances,  when 
the  pasturage  is  very  bare,  the  cattle  eat  grass  more  or  less  mixed 
with  this  weed,  and  as  they  are  by  no  means  fond  of  it,  they  eat 
but  little  at  a  time,  till  gradually  the  entire  flesh  of  the  animal  is 
imbued  with  poison,  without  any  symptoms  of  poisoning  being 
observed.  This  was  formerly  a  very  serious  affair,  but  the  dis- 
ease has  disappeared  with  the  cultivation  of  the  land,  and  a  gen- 
eral understanding  of  the  cause  of  the  mischief.  The  flesh  of  the 
deer  has  been  found  poisonous  occasionally  from  the  same  cause. 
The  disease  was  endemic  in  localities  where  sprouts  of  poison  oak 
grew  so  mingled  with  the  grass  that  the  cattle  were  unable  to  ob- 
tain their  food  separate  from  the  poisonous  weed. 

(274.)  The  Guinea-worm  is  a  peculiar,  long,  threadlike  worm, 
found  in  the  bodies  of  persons  living  on  some  parts  of  the  African 
coast  and  in  the  West  Indies.  Its  presence  is  indicated  under 
the  skin  by  a  little  red,  itching  spot.  This  ulcerates  or  is  opened 
artificially,  and  the  head  of  the  worm  is  found.  The  whole  ani- 
mal requires  to  be  removed  very  carefully  to  avoid  a  very  trou- 
blesome sore.  There  has  been  a  great  deal  of  speculation  and 
doubt  about  the  source  of  this  worm  and  how^  it  could  insinuate 
itself  into  such  a  situation.  It  was  observed  that  persons  using 
water  from  a  particular  well  suffered,  while  their  neighbors  es- 
caped. A  microscopic  examination  of  the  water  resulted  in  the 
discovery  of  many  })eculiar  organic  objects  supposed  to  be  the  or- 
ganic o-erms  of  this  worm.  These  are  swallowed  with  the  water, 
and  })robably  insinuate  themselves  into  the  tissues  from  the  bowels, 
growing  in  their  progress.  In  places  where  this  disease  is  a 
serious  annoyance  it  may  be  obviated  by  the  Japanese  custom  of 
always  boiling  water  before  drinking  it,  using  tea,  etc.,  and  being 
careful  never  to  drink  fresh  water  directly  from  the  well. 

(275.)  Trichinosis. — Germany,  the  land  of  sausages  and  hams, 
has  suffered  from  an  endemic  disease,  the  cause  of  which  has  but 
recently  been  discovered.  This  disease  is  by  no  means  confined 
to  Germany,  as  numerous  cases  have  already  been  reported  in  our 
own  country.     Two  or  three  deaths  occur  in  a  family,  of  typhoid 


§  276.  ]  TRICHINOSIS.  211 

fever,  Avith  some  anomalous  symptoms ;  suspicion  is  aroused,  and 
a  microscopic  examination  of  the  remains  of  the  ham  or  sausage 
proves  the  existence  of  the  newly  recognized  cause  of  ham-poi- 
soning. The  following  case,  which  is  going  the  rounds  of  the 
medical  journals,  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  cause,  and  places  the 
whole  subject  in  its  proper  light : 

(276.)  "About  the  middle  of  October,  1<S63,  there  was  a  festive 
celebration  at  Hettstjidt,  a  small  country  town  near  the  Hartz 
ISIountains,  in  Germany.  Upwards  of  one  hundred  persons  sat 
down  to  an  excellent  dinner,  and  having  enjoyed  themselves  more 
majonim,  separated  and  went  to  their  several  homes. 

"  Of  these  one  hundred  and  three  persons,  mostly  in  the  prime 
of  life,  eighty-three  are  now  in  their  graves ;  the  majority  of  the 
twenty  survivors  linger  with  a  fearful  malady,  and  a  few  only 
walk  apparently  unscathed  among  the  living,  but  in  hourly  fear 
of  the  disease  which  has  carried  away  their  fellow-diners.  They 
had  all  eaten  of  poison  at  that  festive  board.  It  was  not  admin- 
istered by  design  or  negligence,  but  was  unknown  to  all  con- 
cerned. 

"  When  the  festival  had  been  finally  determined  upon  and  the 
dinner  ordered  at  the  hotel,  the  keeper  arranged  his  bill  of  fare. 
The  Rothwurste,  smoked  sausage,  was  therefore  ordered  at  the 
butcher's,  the  necessary  number  of  days  beforehand,  in  order  to 
allow  of  its  being  properly  smoked.  The  butcher  went  expressly 
to  a  neighboring  proprietor  and  bought  one  of  two  pigs  from  the 
steward,  who  had  been  commissioned  with  the  transaction  by  his 
master.  It  appears,  however,  that  the  steward  unfortunately  sold 
the  pig  Avhich  the  master  had  intended  not  to  sell,  as  he  did  not 
deem  it  sufficiently  fat  or  well-conditioned.  Thus  the  wrong  pig 
was  sold,  carried  on  a  barrow  to  the  butcher,  and  worked  into  sau- 
sages, which  were  duly  smoked,  delivered  at  the  hotel  and  served 
to  the  guests  at  dinner. 

"On  the  day  after  the  festival,  several  persons  who  had  par- 
ticipated in  the  dinner  were  attacked  with  irritation  of  the  intes- 
tines and  fever,  loss  of  appetite,  and  great  prostration.  An  active 
inquiry  was  made  into  all  the  circumstances  of  the  dinner.  Every 
article  of  food  and  material  was  subjected  to  a  most  rigid  exami- 
nation, without  any  result  in  the  first  instance,  but  when  the 
symptoms  in  some  of  the  cases  invaded  the  muscles  of  the  legs, 


212  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  277. 

particularly  tlie  calves  of  some  of  the  suifcrers,  the  description 
which  Zenker  had  given  of  a  case  of  fatal  trichinoiis  disease  was 
remembered.  The  remnants  of  sausage  and  pork  were  examined 
with  the  microscope  and  found  to  be  swarming  with  incapsuled 
tricliiiuw  Fronv  the  suffering  muscles  of  several  of  the  victims 
small  pieces  were  excised,  and,  uijdcr  the  microscope,  found 
charged  with  trichinae  in  all  stages  of  dcvelo})mcnt.  It  could 
not  be  doubted  any  longer  that  as  many  of  the  hun(h-cd  and  three 
as  had  partaken  of  the  Rothwurstc  had  been  infected  Avith  trichi- 
nous  disease  by  eating  of  trichinijus  pork,  the  parasites  of  which 
had,  at  least  in  part,  escaped  the  effects  of  smoking  and  frying, 

"  Almost  everywhere  the  commonest  rules  of  cleanliness  are 
disregarded  in  the  rearing  of  pigs,  yet  pigs  are  naturally  clean 
animals.  A  due  regard  to  cleanliness  will  prevent  trichina  in 
the  pig.  In  wild  boars,  of  which  many  are  eaten  in  the  country 
around  the  Hartz  INIountains,  the  trichinae  have  never  been  found, 
neither  has  it  been  met  with  in  sheep,  oxen,  or  horses.  Beef  is 
the  safest  of  all  descriptions  of  meat,  as  no  parasite  has  ever  been 
discovered  in  it." 

(277.)  Tai'CDtfisnins. — An  endemic  under  this  name  was  for- 
merly described  as  occurring  in  some  parts  of  Italy.  It  was 
caused  by  the  bite  of  a  big  spider,  and  cured  by  liquor  and  danc- 
ing. The  fact  is  that  the  bite  of  the  tarantula  is  pretty  severe, 
nearly  as  bad  as  the  sting  of  a  hornet,  and,  like  the  wounds  of 
other  poisonous  insects,  it  is  relieved  by  alcohol  or  ammonia.  We 
might  about  as  well  consider  hornet-stinging  an  endemic;  disease, 
es23ecially  in  places  where  the  insects  are  made  cross  by  throwing 
sticks  at  their  nest. 

Acclimation. — There  seems  to  be  a  very  general  impression, 
almost  universal,  that  the  human  constitution  may  accommodate 
itself  to  almost  any  climate  ;  and  especially  to  any  malarial  con- 
dition of  cliinute,  so  as  to  enjoy  health  in  almost  any  locality.  So 
far  as  mere  temperature  goes,  the  accommodation  only  requires  a 
proper  change  of  habits,  in  regard  to  food,  clothing,  and  exer- 
cise. If  the  Es(piimaux  should  be  transferred  to  a  hot  climate, 
they  could  not  continue  to  cat  ten  pounds  of  blubber  a  day, 
clothe  in  heavy  suits  of  peltry,  and  run  about  hunting  bears  and 
walrus.  Nor  could  the  Chinaman — in  his  summer  dress  of  solid 
shoes,  loose  drawers,  and  light  shirt  overall,  shading  and  fanning 


§  277.  ]  ACCLIMATION.  213 

the  Avholc  surface  of  his  body — enjoy  an  Arctic  winter.  We 
have  a  climate  with  a  winter  and  a  summer  temperature  some- 
what resembling  these  extremes;  and  we  probably  suffer  in  health 
occasionally,  from  our  slowness  in  accommodating  our  dress  to 
the  changes  of  temperature ;  for  the  warmer  the  summer  Aveather 
the  greater  the  number  of  deaths,  is  the  report  of  the  students  of 
mortuary  statisticvS.  It  has  struck  me  that  in  hot  climates  we  really 
need  heavier  clothing  than  is  usually  worn  by  the  natives;  the  two 
garments  of  shirt  and  drawers  arranged  for  decency,  for  shade, 
for  fans,  and  to  protect  from  insects,  is  not  dress  enough  for  the 
European  newly  arrived  at  Canton ;  some  of  the  older  residents, 
however,  do  occasionally  wear  pan-ja-mas,  for  an  hour  in  the 
morning,  and  they  enjoy  it  like  taking  a  cold  bath. 

But  it  is  mostly  in  reference  to  malaria  that  acclimation  has  been 
most  discussed,  generally  assuming  that  the  natives  of  malarious 
countries  are  quite  healthy.  This  is  a  great  foUacy  to  l)egin  with : 
the  people  of  Lincolnshire,  England,  never  became  healthy,  with 
their  centuries  of  acclimation,  and  acclimatation,  and  acclimatiza- 
tion, till  the  draining  of  their  fens.  The  Italian  Maremma,  near 
Rome,  was  drained  under  the  emperors,  was  healthy,  was  cov- 
ered with  villas  and  gardens.  The  drains  have  been  gradually 
destroyed  by  mere  neglect,  and  the  Maremma  is  malarious.  Some 
of  the  descendants  of  the  owners  of  the  villas  are  still  there, 
living  in  thatched  huts  among  the  ruins,  supported  partly  by 
rearing  cattle,  but  principally  devoted  to  stealing  from  each 
other  and  robbing  an  occasional  stranger.  They  are  lanky,  or 
more  politely,  they  are  spare  in  form,  of  dark  complexions,  and 
mostly  they  suffer  from  painful  splenic  tumors.  This  is  the  re- 
sult of  fifty  generations  of  acclimatization  on  these  beautiful  and 
fertile  fields.  It  is  the  same  story  everywhere.  I  have  never  seen 
a  healthy  people  or  well-cultivated  fields  on  malarious  ground. 
But  men  are  in  some  degree  acclimated  ?  Certainly  they  are. 
Schweinfurth,  in  beginning  his  African  explorations,  had  an  at- 
tack of  remittent  fever ;  he  took  care  of  himself  till  he  recovered, 
and  then  he  congratulated  himself  that  his  liver  was  so  hardened 
that  malaria  could  not  kill  him.  However,  there  are  those 
among  us  who  think  the  African  explorations  too  expensive, 
seeing  that  they  cost  the  liver  and  eventually  the  lives  of  such 


214  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  277. 

accomplished  and  painstaking  votaries  of  scientific  and  benevo- 
lent enterprise.  But  mere  high  tcmjierature  is  a  very  different 
thing  from  malaria;  and  Lind  has  truly  informed  us,  that  there 
are  healthv  spots  in  all  unhealthy  countries,  as  well  as  malarious 
spots  in  healthy  countries;  and  some  of  the  African  explorers  by 
using  the  healthy  spots  for  recruiting  stations,  and  by  keeping 
their  ears  buzzing  with  quinine,  have  kept  on  their  feet  long 
enough  to  do  some  good  work.  I  have  spent  several  months  in 
succession,  in  various  parts  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  and  with  care 
to  avoid  malaria,  without  a  single  case  of  fever  among  the  crew, 
till  two  perverse  fellows,  regardless  of  orders,  remained  all  night 
on  shore ;  and  they  both  suffered . 

Yelloio  fever  is  the  disease  in  which  acclimation  is  most  import- 
ant and  most  readily  appreciated :  this  is  the  endemic  of  cities  in 
warm  climates.  It  resembles  small-pox  and  measles,  in  the  fact 
that  it  rarely  affects  the  same  person  more  than  once.  Children  are 
not  so  severely  affected  and  rarely  die.  Hence,  the  adult  natives 
are  usually  exempt ;  they  do  not  suffer  except  in  great  ei)idemics ; 
they  consider  the  place  quite  healthy  when  strangers  are  dying 
in  large  numbers  or  flying  for  their  lives;  they  call  it  stranger's 
fever.  This  character  of  the  disease  unfortuuatel}^  is  often  lost 
sight  of,  as  in  the  epidemic  at  Norfolk,  in  1855,  when  medical 
students  and  nurses,  quite  unprotected,  were  encouraged  to  go  to 
the  afflicted  city,  to  do  the  work  of  nurses,  and  the  consequence 
was  just  what  should  have  been  expected  :  they  quickly  sickened 
and  died,  thus  making  more  Avork  for  the  nurses  and  grave- 
diggers,  instead  of  helping.  The  same  blunder,  on  a  small  scale, 
was  repeated  at  Pensacola,  in  1874.  There  is  no  scarcity  of  ac- 
climated persons  in  the  southern  cities,  and  they  should  do  this 
duty. 

In  regard  to  most  of  the  endemics  we  have  mentioned,  accli- 
matization has  just  the  opposite  effect  to  that  usually  claimed  for 
it.  Plica  polonka  does  not  affect  strangers,  but  only  Polanders. 
Elephantiasis  arahum,  at  Barbadoes,  does  not  affect  new  comers, 
but  only  natives.  And  referring  to  tarantismus,  probably  the 
tarantula,  centipede  and  scorpion  would  bite  natives  and  strangers 
alike. 


CHAPTER    XXYI. 

CONTAGIOUS    DISEASES — SMALL-POX,  MEASLES,  SYPHILIS. 

(278.)  In  several  of  the  preceding  chapters  we  have  been  con- 
sidering certain  diseases,  the  causes  of  which  being  wholly  un- 
known, they  are  called  epidemics ;  and  certain  other  diseases,  the 
causes  of  which  are  but  little  known,  except  the  fact  of  their 
prevalence  in  special  localities,  hence  called  endemics.  It  is  per- 
ceived that  the  list  of  these  dreadful  epidemics  and  endemics  is 
constantly  being  diminished  with  our  advance  in  knowledge. 
We  have  learned  something  of  the  causes  of  some  of  the  formerly 
dreadful  epidemics,  and  how  to  avoid  them. 

(279.)  We  come  next  to  the  consideration  of  contagious  dis- 
eases, those  which  are  communicated  from  one  person  to  another 
by  contagion  or  personal  infection.  There  are  many  dreadful 
diseases,  of  the  causes  of  which  we  scarcely  know  anything,  ex- 
cept that  the  diseases  are  contracted  by  being  near  or  in  contact 
with  an  individual  already  affected,  as  small-pox,  measles,  and 
mumps,  hydrophobia,  typhus,  and  syphilis.  A  person  receives 
into  a  small  wound  a  little  of  the  saliva  of  a  hydrophobic  dog, 
and  the  chances  are  at  least  nineteen  in  twenty  that  he  receives 
no  very  material  harm,  but  there  is  about  one  chance  in  thirty 
that  he  will  be  afflicted  with  perhaps  the  most  terrific  malady 
known  to  humanity.  We  hence  learn  that  hydrophobia  is  con- 
tagious, but  we  are  wholly  ignorant  why  this  poison,  so  terrifically 
fatal  in  the  one  case,  is  altogether  without  appreciable  action  in 
all  the  others.  We  are  not  able  even  to  mdicate  any  chemical  or 
mechanical  difference  between  the  saliva  of  the  hydrophobic  dog 
and  that  of  a  perfectly  healthy  animal. 

Similarly  in  reference  to  small-pox,  a  person  unprotected  enters 
the  room  of  a  patient,  the  atmosphere  of  which  does  not  greatly 
differ,  either  chemically  or  mechanically,  from  that  of  an  adjoin- 
ing room,  but  the  person  so  entering  is  pretty  sure  of  suffering  in 


216  NAVAL   HYGIENE.  [  §  281. 

about  a  fortniglit  from  the  same  terrible  disease.  The  blood  and 
the  various  excretions  of  the  small-pox  patient,  though  they  may 
not  differ  apparently  from  those  of  people  in  health,  or  people 
suffering  from  other  diseases,  will  produce  the  disease  with  cer- 
tainty in  persons  exposed  to  their  action.  Probably  the  only 
reliable  test  of  the  presence  of  small-] »ox  infection,  except  the 
presence  of  a  patient,  is  the  peculiar  smell  of  the  disease,  and  this 
is  believed  to  be  quite  characteristic.  This  disease  may  not  only 
be  communicated  by  contact,  but  its  poison  is  capable  of  diffusion 
in  the  atmosphere  to  a  certain  distance,  and  the  very  interesting 
and  important  question,  to  what  distance,  does  not  admit  of  any 
precise  answer.  It  may  be  stated  as  the  rule,  that  it  cannot  be 
communicated  through  the  atmosphere  beyond  the  room  in  which 
the  patient  and  his  clothing  are.  It  has  been  stated  that  this  dis- 
ease may  be  taken  as  far  as  it  can  be  smelled,  and  this  is  probably 
as  precise  an  answer  as  the  question  admits  of,  and  suggests  the 
caution  in  approaching  a  patient  of  this  sort  to  keep  to  windward 
if  practicable,  so  as  not  to  smell  it  very  much.  Since  the  intro- 
duction of  vaccination  by  Jenner  this  disease  has  lost  most  of  its 
terrors.  It  no  longer  sweeps  off  one-fourth  of  tlie  population  of 
all  the  cities  every  fifteen  or  twenty  years. 

(280.)  Measles,  like  small-pox,  is  propagated  by  contagion 
through  the  atmosphere,  but  it  has  never  been  such  a  terrifically 
fatal  disease.  The  popular  impression  is  that  these  and  ^•arious 
other  diseases  can  originate  only  by  contagion,  but  this  is  prob- 
ably a  mistake,  and  the  opinion  is  stcadil}'  gaining  ground  that 
any  and  all  of  them  do  occasionally  originate  from  some  epidemic 
influence.  Something  very  like  measles  has  been  produced  by 
the  ordinary  mould  which  grows  on  damp  straw. — {Salisbury.) 

(281.)  Scabies,  itch,  a  disease  of  careless  dirtiness,  is  a  con- 
tagious disease,  which  depends  mainly  on  the  irritation  caused  by 
the  presence  of  microscopic  insects.  These,  on  favorable  occa- 
sions, crawl  from  one  person  to  another,  and  thus  pro})agate  the 
disease.  Some  of  the  older  authors,  under  the  name  morbus  pedic- 
ulosus,  describe  a  ^vretchcd  state  of  things,  caused  in  part  by  the 
presence  of  larger  insects.  These  cases  wore  occasionally  seen 
when  combs,  brushes,  and  soap  were  not  such  common  articles  as 
at  present.     The  free  use  of  soap  and  water  is  sufficient  to  pre- 


§  282.  ]  SYPHILIS.  217 

vent  the  pro})a<2;ation  of  scabies,  even  in  the  extreme  cases  of 
shaking  hands  with  a  person  subject  to  the  disease. 

(282.)  /Si/philis  is  another  contagious  disease,  caused  by  unclean- 
ness,  moral  and  physical.  It  so  deeply  impairs  the  constitution 
of  the  sufferer  that  its  painful  consequences  are  frecpiently  trans- 
mitted, hereditarily,  to  the  children  of  the  third  and  fourth  gen- 
eration, extirpating  whole  families,  root  and  branch.  Indeed,  the 
opinion  appears  to  be  gaining  ground  that  pulmonary  consumption 
and  all  the  forms  of  scrofula  are  mainly  consequences  of  this  dis- 
ease, transmitted  hereditarily  to  the  unfortunate  progeny  of  the 
impure.  This  disease  is  accurately  described  in  the  book  of  Le- 
viticus, xiii,  2,  3,  4 :  "  When  a  man  shall  have  in  the  skin  of  his 
flesh  a  [rising]  swelling,  a  sore,  or  a  [bright]  raiv  spot,  and  it  shall 
be  in  the  skin  of  his  flesh  like  the  [plague  of  leprosy]  ulGer  of 
syphilis,  then  he  shall  be  brought  unto  one  of  the  priests.  And 
the  priest  shall  look  on  the  [plague]  sore  in  the  skin  of  the  flesh ; 
and  when  the  [hair]*  raised  margin  in  the  sore  is  [turned  white] 
inverted  and  white,  and  the  sore  [in  sight]  apparently  deeper  than 
the  skin  of  his  flesh ;  it  is  a  [plague  of  leprosy]  syphilitic  ulcer 
(a  Hunterian  cJiancre) ;  and  the  priest  shall  look  on  him  and  pro- 
nounce him  [unclean]  infectious.  If  the  raw  spot  be  white  in  the 
skin  of  his  flesh,  and  apparently  not  deeper  than  the  skin,  and 
the  margin  thereof  be  not  inverted  or  white,  then  the  priest  shall 
shut  him  up  that  hath  the  sore  seven  days."  By  the  same  au- 
thority Ave  learn  that  secondary  syphilis  is  not  contagious  in  the 
ordinary  acceptation  of  the  term  (Lev.  xiii,  12,  13).  A  still  older 
authority  alludes  to  the  disease  of  the  bones,  wdiich  some  of  the 
moderns  have  foolishly  attributed  to  the  use  of  mercury.  (Job 
XX,  11) :  "His  bones  are  full  of  [the  sin  of  his  youth]  his  secret 
diseases.''  Again  (Prov.  xii,  4),  "She  that  maketh  ashamed  is 
as  rottenness  in  his  bones,"  AVe  know  not  how,  either  in  fact  or 
fancy,  she  can  either  be  or  cause  such  rottenness  without  the  in- 
tervention of  this  disease ;  but  with  it  she  certainly  does  cause 
absolute  material  rottenness  of  the  bones.  It  is  vulgar  language 
to-day  to  describe  them  as  rotten  with  this  disease.  JBlennorrhoea 
virulenta,  the  running  described  in  Leviticus  xv,  is  a  contagious 
disease.     Though  not  so  terrible  in  character  as  the  disease  above 

"^'  The  part  of  the  body  referred  to  is  naturally  without  hair. 


218  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  283. 

described,  it  is  caused  by  the  same  habits  and  acts,  and  it  has  been 
described  by  many  autliors  as  the  initial  state  of  that  disease. 

(283.)  The  only  known  means  of  avoiding  these  diseases  is 
purity,  moral  and  material  purity.  But  other  devices  have  been 
tried.  In  Leviticus  xiii,  seclusion  of  the  patient  seems  to  be  re- 
lied on  to  ju'evcnt  the  spread  of  the  disease,  and  this  is  certainly 
a  step  in  the  right  direction.  The  seekers  after  information  in 
regard  to  the  means  of  avoiding  these  diseases  will  hardly  be 
satisfied  merely  to  be  told  that  they  are  to  be  escaped  Avith  cer- 
tainty only  by  avoiding  the  well-known  cause.  It  may,  there- 
fore, be  suggested  that  if  they  cannot  be  pure,  it  is  well  to  be  as 
cleanly  as  they  can,  and  there  is  much  virtue  in  soap  and  water. 
It  has  been  noticed  that  these  diseases  are  generally  contracted 
during  a  drunken  frolic,  so  that  the  avoidance  of  drunkenness 
and  drunken  associates  will  very  often  prevent  the  disease.  Sea- 
men in  the  navy  suffer  much  less  than  formerly,  probably  on 
account  of  the  temperance  reform.  In  Paris,  and  some  other  of 
the  European  capitals,  it  is  attempted  to  prevent  these  diseases  by 
police  regulations.  Certain  persons  are  regularly  licensed  and 
subjected  to  a  most  rigid  and  careful  inspection  about  once  a 
month.  The  insufficiency  of  this  is  demonstrated  by  the  enor- 
mous amount  of  disease  found  in  the  Parisian  hospitals.  About 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  prodigious  havoc  was  created  by 
a  battery  of  lewd  women  in  the  Austrian  army,  at  that  time  en- 
gaged in  the  siege  of  Naples,  and  a  remnant  of  the  army  was 
saved  only  by  raising  the  siege.  [General  Butler,  at  New  Orleans, 
in  1862,  did  better.  The  police  regulation  was  that  this  sort  of 
artillery  should  be  kept  in  jail ;  but  this  being  found  insufficient, 
he  ordered  that  pretended  ladies,  no  matter  what  their  apparent 
rank,  who  approached  his  men  with  insulting  (?)  language  or 
gestures,  should  be  treated  in  the  same  way.]  In  the  Book  of 
Numbers  there  is  suggested  a  prophylactic  which  was  once  found 
effective.  (Num.  xxx,  1.)  "  The  peojde  began  to  commit  whore- 
dom with  the  dauji'liters  of  Moab.  And  behold  one  of  the  chil- 
drcn  of  Israel  came,  and  brought  unto  his  brethren  a  Midianitish 
woman,  in  the  sight  of  INIoses,  and  in  sight  of  all  the  congrega- 
tion of  the  children  of  Israel,  who  were  weeping  before  the  door 
of  the  tabernacle  of  the  congregation.  And  when  Phinehas,  the 
son  of  Eleazar,  the  son  of  Aaron  the  priest,  saw  it,  he  arose  up 


§  283.  ]  SYPHILIS.  219 

from  among  the  congregation,  and  took  a  javelin  in  his  hand. 
And  he  went  after  the  man  of  Israel  into  the  tent,  and  thrust  both 
of  them  through,  the  man  of  Israel  and  the  woman,  so  the  plague 
was  stayed  from  the  children  of  Israel.  And  they  that  died  of 
that  plague  were  twenty-four  thousand." 

A  curious  part  of  the  history  of  this  plague  is,  that  at  one 
time  it  was  generally  supposed  to  have  been  carried  to  Europe  by 
the  companions  of  Columbus.  Sydenham,  a  most  respectable 
authority,  tells  us  that  "  it  first  came  from  the  West  Indies,  in 
the  year  1493,  for  before  that  time  the  name  of  it  was  not  so 
much  as  known  among  us."  Now  the  most  common  name  of  the 
most  common  form  of  the  disease,  which  occurs  upward  of  twenty 
times  in  Sydenham's  description,  occurs  at  least  nine  times  in  the 
Septuagint  translation  of  the  fifteenth  chapter  of  Leviticus.  So 
we  think  he  was  mistaken.  He  is  correct  in  the  following  quo- 
tation :  "  But  when,  by  reason  of  the  continuance  of  the  disease 
in  the  said  parts,  the  contagion  is  carried  up,  and  by  degrees  in- 
fects the  blood,  all  the  symptoms  increase  by  degrees,  especially 
the  i^ain ;  so  that  the  sick  cannot  keep  his  bed,  but  is  forced  in  a 
restless  manner  to  walk  about  his  chamber  till  morning.  More- 
over, by  reason  of  the  violence  of  the  pain,  the  skull,  and  bones 
of  the  legs  and  arms,  grow  up  in  hard  nodes,  called  exostoses, 
like  the  spavin  in  horses ;  which  bones,  that  have  nodes  on  them, 
by  reason  of  continual  pain  and  inflammation,  become  at  length 
carious  and  putrefied.  Phagedenic  ulcers  also  seize  various  parts 
of  the  body,  and  most  commonly  begin  in  the  throat,  and  are 
propagated  by  degrees  to  the  cartilage  of  the  nose,  through  the 
palate,  and  soon  consume  it,  so  that  wanting  its  support  it  falls. 
The  ulcers  and  pain  increasing  daily,  the  sick  is  devoured  by 
ulcers  and  putrefaction,  so  that  he  lives  a  grievous  life,  by  reason 
of  the  pain,  stink,  and  scandal,  which  is  worse  than  any  death ; 
but  at  length,  one  member  rotting  after  another,  the  torn  carcass 
is  hid  under  ground,  being  very  odious  before  to  all  above."  To 
avoid  these  terrible  consequences,  it  is  important  to  avoid  the 
advertising  quacks,  Avho  only  know  enough  to  frighten  out  of 
their  money  those  who  have  not  the  disease,  but  merely  deserve 
to  be  swindled. 

I  had  hoped  by  examining  such  official  reports  as  came  in  my 


220  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §   283. 

way,  to  cleiiionstrate  vorv  great  improvement  in  the  character  of 
the  navy  with  reference  to  this  matter;  but  I  have  been  di.sap- 
])ointecl.  For  several  years  after  the  close  of  the  war,  the  num- 
ber of  admissions  was  very  regularly  between  (59  and  60)  fifty- 
nine  and  sixty  per  thousand  mean  force  for  all  enthetic  diseases; 
for  ten  years  (1860  to  1875)  the  average  is  (58.4)  fifty-eight  and 
four-tenths;  in  the  year  1876,  the  admissions  were  (56.8)  fifty- 
six  and  eight-tenths  per  thousand.  Hence,  the  diminution  in 
five  years  appears  to  be  about  (3)  three  per  cent.,  or  (.6)  six- 
tenths  of  one  per  cent,  per  annum, — at  which  rate  these  diseases 
Avould  diminish  about  one-half  in  a  century. 

In  the  last  reports  of  the  Navy  Department,  the  tal)les  are  so 
arranged  that  the  degree  of  prevalence  of  syphilis  primitiva  may 
be  studied  separately;  in  1876  (mean  force,  12,307 ;  syph.  prim., 
271),  the  admissions  were  (22)  twenty-two  jjer  thousand  mean 
force.  This  is  not  very  encouraging ;  but  if  the  young  men  of 
our  cities  can  be  kept  as  continent  as  the  average  sailor,  we  need 
not  despair.  Let  us  not  weaken  by  crude  experiments  the  re- 
straints now  existing,  which  every  middle-aged  man  nnist  under- 
stand pretty  well,  from  recollections  of  personal  experience. 
Something  like  the  following  has  been  proposed :  have  handsome 
gilt  signs  attached  to  the  fronts  of  houses,  so  that  the  old  stager 
may  suggest  to  go  in  and  take  "  something,"  while  the  shy  boy 
who  hesitates  is  to  be  laughed  at  as  a  "  chicken-hearted  baby." 
Boards  of  health  perhaps  might  do  more  than  at  present :  they 
have  charge  of  hospitals  for  patients  suffering  under  "  contagious 
diseases ;"  a  reasonable  amount  of  confinement  in  the  hospital 
might  do  the  patients  good,  without  serious  harm  to  tlie  commu- 
nity. 


CHAPTER   XXVIL 


TYPHUS    FEYEE. 


(284.)  Typhus  is  a  contagious  disease  originating  from  a  spe- 
cies of  impurity  not  readily  appreciated  by  the  poor  and  the 
ignorant.  There  is  a  general  unconsciousness  that  anything 
capable  of  exerting  a  pernicious  influence  can  emanate  from  the 
body  of  a  healthy  person.  It  is  very  important  that  the  com- 
munity should  be  taught  their  error  in  this  respect ;  and  that 
there  are  aeriform  excretions,  both  from  the  skin  and  the  lungs, 
capable  of  rendering  a  confined  atmosphere  exceedingly  poison- 
ous in  a  short  time.  We  have  sometimes  been  taught  to  look 
upon  the  consumption  of  oxygen  and  substitution  of  carbonic 
acid  as  the  only  or  principal  contaminating  influence,  but  this  is 
very  far  from  being  true.  The  small  amount  of  carbonic  acid 
found  in  an  atmosphere  thus  contaminated  is  not  sufficient  seri- 
ously to  impair  health,  and  is  probably  fully  compensated  by 
slightly  fuller  respirations,  as  is  necessary  in  the  attenuated  at- 
mosphere of  high  mountains.  Neither  are  we  authorized  to  at- 
tribute the  deleterious  properties  to  watery  vapor,  the  other  bulky 
material  of  cutaneous  and  pulmonary  exhalations.  The  little 
animal  matter,  which  eludes  all  ordinary  observation,  contains 
the  pestilence  that  walketh  in  darkness.  This  animal  matter 
varies  for  each  animal  species,  and  perhaps  for  each  individual 
on  the  earth ;  for  animals  are  recognized  by  a  smell  peculiar  to 
each  ;  and  we  know  that  a  dog  is  generally  able  to  follow  his  own 
master  through  crowds  by  the  smell  alone.  This  can  only  be 
accounted  for  by  supposing  the  exhalations  from  the  master  to 
differ  from  those  of  all  other  men.  The  animal  matter  exhaled 
must  vary  almost  infinitely  from  disease,  for  many  diseases  are 
recognized  by  the  smell.  The  exhalation  from  a  small-pox  patient 
causes  small-pox ;  that  from  a  person  infected  with  measles  causes 
measles ;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  scarlet  fever,  Avhooping- 
cough,  typhus,  etc. 


222  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  286. 

But  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  exhalations  from 
perfectly  hejilthy  people  are  poisonous,  except  when  very  rapidly 
diluted  by  mingling  Avith  the  atmosphere.  Under  all  ordinary 
circumstances  this  dilution  is  so  rapid  and  complete  that  no 
harm  results,  and  it  is  in  fact  accomplished  without  our  conscious- 
ness. On  various  occasions,  however,  numbers  of  jiersons  have 
been  forced  into  small  rooms  deficient  of  veiitilation  to  such  a 
degree  as  to  occasion  great  discomfort,  and  even  almost  instant 
death.  In  some  of  these  cases  the  consumption  of  oxygen  and 
substitution  of  carbonic  acid  may  have  proceeded  to  such  a  degree 
as  to  cause  death  by  sutlbcation ;  perhaps  generally  the  deaths 
among  persons  suddenly  thrust  into  such  places  may  have  been 
from  this  cause;  but  the  long-continued  ill-health  of  those  es- 
caping immediate  death,  is  certainly  not  owing  to  the  inhalation 
of  carbonic  acid. 

(285.)  The  exhalations  from  healthy  persons,  when  fresh,  are 
but  moderately  poisonous,  but  after  they  have  undergone  in  some 
degree  the  process  of  decay  common  to  all  animal  matter,  they 
are  terrifically  poisonous.  The  exhalations  of  persons  quite 
healthy,  but  merely  wretched  and  negligent  of  cleanliness,  as 
those  in  prison  or  in  very  crowded  poor  tenements,  produce 
typhus  fever.  The  exhalations  of  persons  merely  wounded,  pro- 
duce erysipelas  and  hospital  gangrene.  The  exhalations  of  puer- 
peral women  produce  puerperal  fever,  so  frequently  and  so 
terrifically  fatal,  that  a  lying-in  hospital  is  nearly  an  impossibility. 
The  exhalations  of  starving  animals  are  })articularly  offensive  and 
poisonous. 

The  exhalations  of  the  sick  are  much  more  dangerous  than 
those  of  the  healthy.  Those  of  persons  suffering  under  some  of 
the  contagious  diseases  produce  those  diseases  ;  and  it  is  well  to 
note  that  they  become  much  more  virulent  by  i)artial  decay,  and 
hence  the  great  importance  of  removing  promptly  the  remains  of 
persons  dying  of  contagious  diseases. 

(286.)  Tijphiis  appears  mostly  to  originate  in  this  way.  The 
poor  and  wretched  are  not  sufficiently  aware  of  the  importance 
of  frequent  changes  of  clothing  and  bedding,  especially  in  cold 
weather.  Their  bedding,  by  being  used  too  long  without  clean- 
ing or  airing,  becomes  saturated  with  their  cutaneous  exhalations, 
which  by  the  wanutli  of  their  bodies  undergo  decay,  rendering 


§  288.  ]  TYPHUS.  223 

them  poisouous  to  such  a  degree  and  in  such  a  way  that  they 
produce  typhus  fever.  One  case  originated  in  this  way,  the  dis- 
ease spreads  rapidly  by  contagion.  If  a  number  of  individuals 
occupy  the  same  small  apartment  or  same  bed,  we  may  easily 
comprehend  that  their  bedding  will  the  more  rapidly  be  charged 
with  this  poisonous  material.  Hence  we  see  that  violations  of 
the  tonnage  laws  of  emigrant  ships,  so  that  they  are  much 
crowded,  usually  produce  this  terrifically  destructive  disease ; 
which  is  so  contagious  that  on  these  occasions  it  is  pretty  sure  to 
destroy  the  lives  of  a  number  of  physicians  and  nurses  at  the 
quarantine  hospitals.  If  apartments  are  much  closed,  so  as  not 
to  be  freely  ventilated,  the  exhalations  are  much  more  liable  to  be 
concentrated  to  a  dangerous  extent ;  and  hence  typhus  and  other 
contagious  diseases  prevail  much  more  in  winter  than  in  summer, 
much  more  in  cold  and  temperate  climates  than  in  the  tropics. 
The  mere  airing  of  bedding  and  clothing  has  great  power  in  re- 
moving and  dissipating  the  poisonous  material. 

(287.)  Deficient  nourishment  may  contribute  to  produce,  or  it 
may  greatly  aggravate,  an  epidemic  of  typhus  fever.  Hence 
pestilence  and  famine  are  usually  associated.  The  population  of 
the  Cape  de  Verde  Islands  is  generally  in  great  part  destroyed 
about  once  in  ten  years;  the  "destruction  being  sometimes  at- 
tributed to  pestilence  derived  from  the  neighboring  coast  of 
Africa,  and  sometimes  to  famine.  Both  pestilence  and  famine 
probably  take  part  on  every  occasion,  sometimes  the  one  and 
sometimes  the  other  predominating.  Formerly  the  occupants  of 
prisons  were  defectively  nourished,  partly  with  a  view  to  economy, 
and  occasionally  for  the  purpose  of  aggravating  punishment. 
Under  these  circumstances,  typhus,  aggravated  more  or  less  by 
the  scorbutic  condition,  prevailed  terrifically  in  prisons ;  hence 
called  jail  fever  or  spotted  fever.  The  bringing  of  prisoners 
into  court  for  trial  from  these  places,  used  to  kill  judges,  jurymen, 
and  sheriffs  by  the  dozen. 

(288.)  Bearing  in  mind  these  causes  of  the  disease,  we  have  no 
difficulty  in  pointing  out  the  means  of  prevention.  Personal 
cleanliness,  in  reference  particularly  to  clothing  and  bedding,  is 
necessary;  the  beds  should  be  separated  and  aired  as  much  as 
possible  during  the  day,  and  only  made  up  at  night.  Too  many 
persons   should  not  be  kept  in  small   or  defectively  ventilated 


224  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  290. 

apartments ;  and  to  accomplish  this  object  it  may  be  necassary  to 
enact  laws  and  enforce  scrntinizing  police  regulations.  So  far  as 
ships  are  concerned,  the  present  tonnage  laws,  imposing  severe 
penalties  for  carrying  more  than  a  prescribed  number  of  passen- 
gers for  each  hundred  tons  capacity,  if  rigidly  enforced,  are  suf- 
ficient for  all  ordinary  voyages.  But  if  the  number  of  passengers 
be  a  little  exceeded  in  the  voyage  from  Europe,  and  the  passage 
protracted  a  few  days  beyond  the  average,  this  terrific  scourge  is 
pretty  sure  to  have  its  victims.  On  the  California  steamers  the 
authorized  number  of  passengers  is  habitually  exceeded,  without 
other  harm  than  the  temporary  discomfort ;  but  the  time  occu- 
pied in  the  passage  is  short,  and  all  hygienic  influences  com- 
patible with  such  crowding  are  assiduously  used.  In  the  city  of 
Philadelphia,  the  census  officers  of  1860  found  a  district  in  which 
there  were  many  tenements  so  small,  so  crowded,  so  filthy,  so 
dark,  and  so  poorly  ventilated,  that  they  felt  it  their  duty  to  re- 
port the  neighborhood  as  likely  to  become  the  focus  of  infectious 
disease.  The  Board  of  Health,  on  examination,  coincided  with 
them  in  this  opinion,  and  required  the  houses  to  be  closed  as  tene- 
ments ;  such  of  the  occupants  as  had  no  better  provision  were 
transferred  to  the  almshouse.  It  has  since  been  made  the  duty 
of  the  police  officers  of  each  precinct  to  report  every  tenement 
which  they  may  find  deficient  in  certain  specified  conveniences 
and  accommodations  deemed  necessary  for  the  preservation  of 
health.  Eventually  competent  sanitary  inspectors  nuist  relieve 
the  police  from  this  duty. 

(289.)  The  present  building  laws  of  Philadelphia  are  doing 
much  good  by  preventing  the  building  of  such  places.  The  city 
of  London  was  swept  every  few  years  by  a  great  plague,  till  the 
immense  conflao-ration  g-enerallv  referred  to  as  the  Great  Fire.  In 
1665  occurred  the  last  great  plague,  during  which  in  nine  months 
69,602  persons  perished  of  the  disease ;  the  conflagration  follow- 
ing swept  the  vacant  houses  in  the  worst  part  of  the  city  ;  and 
thus  the  authorities  were  enabled  to  lay  out  broader  and  better 
streets,  and  to  have  the  burnt  district  built  up  in  a  better  and 
more  healthy  shape.  London  has  had  no  great  epidemic  of  this 
disease  since  the  great  fire. 

(290.)  Quarantine  regulations  have  probably  done  nuich  more 
harm  than  good  in  this  disease.     Not  that  we  would  have  per- 


§  290.  ]  QUARANTINE.  225 

sons  suffering  under  this  or  any  other  contagious  disease  min- 
gling indiscriminately  with  the  conmuinity,  but  these  regulations 
directed  exclusively  to  one  point  have  tended  much  to  distract 
attention  from  nuicli  more  important  measures.  80  long  as  in 
every  large  city  there  are  localities  in  which  typhus  constantly 
prevails,  and  the  weekly  reports  of  interments  show  deaths  from 
it  constantly,  no  amount  of  arbitrary  cruelty  practiced  against 
strangers  arriving  in  ships  can  possibly  eradicate  the  disease. 
Let  us  not  be  misunderstood :  the  weekly  reports  of  interments 
prove. the  constant  prevalence  of  both  small-pox  and  typhus  in 
Xew  York  city,  and  yet  we  do  not  think  that  every  person,  sick 
or  well,  who  attempts  to  pass  from  New  York  into  any  other 
city,  whether  by  ship  or  by  railroad,  should  be  immediately 
hanged  ;  but  this  the  rigid  quarantine  notions  require. 

Attention  must  be  directed  to  home  causes,  and  if  this  be  done 
everywhere,  the  disease  will  be  reduced  to  its  minimum.  It  may 
be  observed  that  the  more  energetic  the  quarantine,  and  the  more 
reliance  is  placed  on  it  as  a  means  of  security,  the  more  other  and 
more  important  means  are  neglected,  and  the  more  constantly  and 
more  terribly  do  epidemics  of  this  and  other  contagious  diseases 
prevail.  Some  ports  of  the  Levant  are  nearly  without  commerce 
on  account  of  the  excessive  rigor  of  their  quarantine  regulations, 
and  the  plague  continues  to  prevail  among  them  almost  as  badly 
as  ever.  Other  ports  under  more  enlightened  views  have  re- 
moved these  absurd  impediments  to  commerce,  have  become  pros- 
perous, and  the  plague  has  ceased  to  appear. 

What  is  really  required  is,  that  when  a  person  affected  with 
dangerous  contagious  disease  arrives,  whether  in  a  ship  or  in  a 
wagon,  he  should  be  treated  in  the  same  way  as  a  person  found 
similarly  suffering  at  home ;  he  is  to  be  placed  in  a  healthy  place 
suitable  for  his  recovery,  where  none  will  have  any  inducement 
to  approach  him,  except  such  as  are  needed  to  take  care  of  him,, 
and  where  none  can  approach  him  without  being  warned  of  their 
danger.  His  clothing  and  everything  else  likely  to  have  been 
contaminated  by  the  disease  must  be  burnt  or  thoroughly  disin- 
fected. All  other  disinfectants  sink  into  insignificance  in  com- 
parison with  free  ventilation,  soap  and  water.  Heat,  chlorine, 
ozone,  permanganate  of  potassa,  carbolic  acid,  etc.,  are  all  of' 
them  occasionally  useful. 

15 


CHAPTER    XXVIII. 

TYPHOID    FEVER — ERYSIPELAS — PUERPERAL  FEVER. 

(291.)  Typhoid  fever,  the  common  winter  fever  of  <nir  country, 
appears  to  be  produced  in  nearly  the  same  way  as  typhus,  and 
has  been  called  typhus  mifior,  the  milder  typhus.  It  is  altogether 
a  less  formidable  disease,  and  is  so  little  contagious  that  it  is 
doubted  by  many  whether  it  should  be  ranked  with  the  conta- 
gious fevers  at  all.  Certainly  the  contagion  of  typhus  is  not  capa- 
ble of  producing  typhoid  fever,  or  the  typhoid  contagion  of  pro- 
ducing typhus.  It  seems  curious  that  the  same  cause  should 
produce  two  perfectly  distinct  diseases,  sometimes  the  one  and 
sometimes  the  other ;  but  this  instance  is  not  a  singular  one,  as 
we  are  familiar  with  the  fact  that  a  severe  fall  may  cause  either 
a  broken  bone  or  only  a  simple  contusion.  The  typhoid  fever  is 
to  be  avoided  in  the  same  way  as  the  typhus,  except  that  here 
there  is  less  danger  of  contagion  to  guard  against.  The  typhoid 
contagion  is  supposed  to  attach  particularly  to  fecal  evacuations, 
and  hence  particular  care  should  be  exercised  in  regard  to  them. 

(292.)  Erysipelas — Dissection  Wounds — Hospital  Gnuf/rcnc — 
Puerperal  Fever: — Probably  several  distinct  and  rather  rare  dis- 
eases have  been  described  under  the  name  of  erysipelas,  or  St. 
Anthony's  fire.  When  in  a  hospital  there  are  too  many  patients, 
it  is  observed  that  all  the  wounds  are  apt  to  put  on  an  unfavora- 
ble appearance,  and  instead  of  healing  they  are  apt  to  become 
flabby  and  pale  or  purple  and  to  mortify ;  the  mortification 
spreads  rapidly  up  the  limb  and  speedily  terminates  in  the  death 
of  the  patient.  At  the  same  time  the  most  insignificant  scratch 
will  put  on  a  serious  appearance,  red  lines  running  up  the  limb, 
and  redness  or  inflammation,  with  strong  tendency  to  mortify, 
.rapidly  spreading  from  the  seat  of  the  injury.  AMien  this  ten- 
dency is  fully  established  the  same  symptoms  occur  without  even 
a  scratch.     This  is  hospital  gangrene  and  malignant  erysipelas. 


§  293.  ]  ERYSIPELAS.  227 

Dissection  icounds,  which  arise  sometimes  fi'om  incautiously 
handling  tlie  remains  of  the  dead,  are  attended  by  simihir  symp- 
toms. Nearly  the  same  thing  has  happened  from  wounding  the 
finger  with  a  perfectly  clean  cambric  needle,  in  persons  peculiarly 
disposed  to  this  kind  of  disease,  either  constitutionally  or  through 
the  influence  of  surrounding  morbific  causes. 

Erysipelas  sometimes  prevails  epidemically,  in  situations  far 
removed  from  hospitals  and  crowds  of  sick  and  wounded,  and 
e-ven  varies  so  much  in  symptoms  as  to  authorize  the  belief  that 
distinct  diseases  are  confounded  under  this  name.  In  one  variety 
the  local  disease  is  merely  redness  and  swelling,  with  some  itching 
orsmartiuo;  of  a  more  or  less  extensive  surface  of  the  skin  :  this  is 
erysipelas  simplex.  In  another  variety,  with  perhaps  less  irritar- 
tion  of  the  skin,  there  is  a  disposition  to  serous  eifusion  in  the 
subcutaneous  cellular  tissue,  giving  rise  to  swelling,  which  readily 
pits  on  pressure  with  the  end  of  the  finger :  erysipelas  cedematosa. 
In  a  third  variety  the  peculiarity  is  a  strong  tendency  to  mortifi- 
cation of  small  patches  of  cellular  tissue,  while  the  skin  remains 
comparatively  sound  ;  each  mortified  sjjot  forms  an  abscess,  whi<!h 
discharges  its  matter  and  slough  through  the  skin  :  this  is  erysipe- 
las jMegmonoidcs.  In  another  variety  the  cuticle  is  raised  in 
little  blisters,  and  the  skin  beneath  rapidly  mortifies  :  this  is  mcdig- 
nant  pustule,  or  erysipelas  gangrenosa.  Like  other  serious  diseases, 
erysipelas  may  be  accompanied  by  typhous  prostration  :  it  is  then 
erysipelas  typhosa.  The  redness  of  the  skin  and  irritation,  caused 
by  the  direct  action  of  the  sun's  rays  or  other  simple  irritant,  un- 
attended by  fever  or  serious  constitutional  derangement,  is  not 
usually  considered  as  erysipelas  at  all :  it  is  a  simple  erythema,  but 
has  been  described  as  erysipelas  erythematosa.  Different  from  all 
these  is  erysipelas  vera,  true  erysipelas,  which  is  a  rare  febrile  dis- 
ease, with  some  blended  red  and  yellow  discolorations  of  various 
portions  of  the  skin. 

(293.)  The  question  of  contagion,  in  these  forms  of  disease,  is 
of  immense  importance,  and  it  is  a  question  in  which  the  doctors 
do  not  always  agree.  AVe  think  ourselves  pretty  safe  in  the 
opinion  that  simple  erythema  is  not  usually  contagious.  Hospi- 
tcd  gangrene  and  the  erysipelas  usually  prevailing  with  it  are  not 
very  contagious  through  the  atmosphere.  Attending  physicians 
and  other  persons  in  good  health,  merely  visiting  the  sick  and 


228  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  295. 

spending  mncli  of  the  time  in  the  open  air,  are  in  no  great  dan- 
ger of  suffering  from  the  disease ;  but  wounded  patients  are  in 
great  danger — sure  to  suffer — and  nurses  and  other  constant  at- 
tendants are  far  from  safe,  with  all  the  precautions  possible  in 
their  case.  This  narrows  down  the  question  without  determining 
positively  wdiether  the  disease  is  contagious  through  the  atmos- 
phere, or  endemic,  attac-hing  itself  to  the  hospital  and  its  accumu- 
lation of  decaying  morbid  exhalations.  The  morbific  power  of 
discharges  from  the  wounds  of  patients  suffering  under  this  dis- 
ease is  peculiarly  persistent.  A  sponge  or  piece  of  muslin  which 
has  been  used  in  dressing  them  seems  never  to  be  thoroughly  dis- 
infected till  it  is  reduced  to  ashes.  But  as  the  disease  is  not  very 
contao-ious,  with  reference  to  patients  not  wounded,  in  healthy, 
w^ell-ventilated  places,  we  may  recommend  that  the  patients  be 
distributed,  but  Avith  the  utmost  care  that  they  be  not  brought  too 
nearly  in  contact  with  wounded  persons. 

(294.)  Some  epidemics  of  erysipelas  are  undoubtedly  conta- 
gious. We  may  instance  the  epidemic  of  1842-'45,  which  in 
some  parts  of  the  country  was  called  black  tongue  ;  in  other  parts, 
big  head,  etc.  The  disease  was  plainly  communicated  from  the 
patient  to  his  family  and  visitors,  and  persons  infected  communi- 
cated the  disease  to  families  whom  they  visited.  Individual  cases 
occurred  in  which  no  connection  could  be  traced,  as  occurs  in 
small-pox  and  all  other  contagious  diseases. — {Peebles.) 

(295.)  Puerperal  fever,  a  very  fatal  contagious  disease,  is  so 
very  intimately  connected  with  some  forms  of  erysipelas  as  to 
possess  a  fair  title  to  be  considered  the  same  disease,  merely  modi- 
fied by  the  peculiar  condition  of  the  patient.  It  is  so  exceedingly 
fatal  and  contagious  that  the  obstetrician,  having  attended  a  patient 
with  this  disease,  is  obliged  to  abandon  practice  and  seclude  him- 
self for  a  month  or  more ;  or,  if  he  have  the  hardihood  to  con- 
tinue practice,  he  will  have  his  conscience  burdened  by  the  reflec- 
tion that  most  of  his  patients  in  the  puerperal  condition  die  through 
his  fault. — {Holmes.) 

There  is  something  very  curious  in  the  persistent  power  of  this 
contagion  as  regards  its  capability  of  affecting  women  in  the  puer- 
peral condition.  The  obstetrician,  with  all  possible  appliances  in 
the  way  of  soap  and  water,  and  changes  of  clothing  and  ventila- 
tion, is  unable  to  rid  his  person  of  its  dangerous  power.    The  late 


§  296.  ]  PUERPERAL    FEVER.  229 

Prof.  Chajiman  used  to  teaoh  its  indestructibility  in  nearly  the 
following;  lan<>;ua<!:e : 

"  Some  years  ago  it  was  attempted  to  attach  a  lying-in  ward  to 
the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  but  the  building  was  hardly  occupied 
before  the  puerperal  fever  made  its  appearance,  and  the  project 
was  reluctantly  abandoned.  Some  years  after,  when  soap  and 
Avater,  chloride  of  lime,  ventilation,  and  whitewash  had  done  all 
they  could  do  to  destroy  and  remove  the  poison,  it  was  thought 
safe  to  reoccupy  the  ward.  But  the  very  first  woman  who  came 
there  to  be  confined  died  of  puerperal  fever,  and  all  further 
attempts  to  use  the  building  for  this  purpose  were  abandoned." 

(296.)  The  most  reliable  means  of  preventing  these  diseases 
must  be  inferred  from  the  foregoing  description  of  the  circum- 
stances under  M'hich  they  mostly  appear.  Too  many  patients, 
especially  wounded,  should  not  be  permitted  to  occupy  one  hos- 
pital. In  very  large  hospitals  the  wards  should  be  considerably 
separated  from  each  other,  so  as  to  admit  of  independent,  efficient 
ventilation.  On  the  first  appearance  of  any  symptom  of  these 
diseases,  the  patients  should  be  separated  as  much  as  possible,  and 
no  more  should  be  admttted.  Physicians,  nurses,  and  other  at- 
tendants of  such  hospitals,  or  attending  private  patients  with 
puerperal  fever,  especially  in  seasons  of  epidemic  prevalence, 
should  be  very  cautious  in  their  visits  to  other  persons,  and  espe- 
cially they  should  not  enter  the  house  of  any  family  in  which 
there  may  reasonably  be  expected  any  special  liability  to  any  of 
these  diseases. 

Great  improvements  have  recently  been  made  in  arrangements 
to  prev^ent  these  diseases.  Hospitals  are  not  permitted  to  be 
crowded,  but  tents  or  sheds  are  scattered  about  the  grounds.  New 
hospitals  are  arranged  in  separate  pavilions,  even  with  single 
rooms  independently  ventilated.  Even  cottage  hospitals,  of  five 
or  six  beds,  have  been  organized  in  some  villages,  for  the  recep- 
tion and  care,  at  moderate  cost,  of  strangers  and  the  poor  without 
proper  home  accommodations. 


CHAPTEE   XXIX. 

VARIOUS   THEORIES. 
"  Eernm  causus  cognoscere." 

(297.)  Many  theories  have  been  suggested  to  account  for  vari- 
ous epidemic,  endemic,  and  contagious  diseases,  each  of  which 
appears  to  be  correct  as  regards  particular  instances;  the  error 
common  to  most  of  them  is  their  exclusiveness.  The  only  com- 
mon cause  of  all,  or  nearly  all  these  diseases,  is  impurity,  of  one 
kind  or  another,  operating  in  various  ways. 

(298.)  The  ammalcular  theory  is  certainly  true  in  reference  to 
scabies  and  some  other  diseases,  but  this  does  not  prove  that  ani- 
malcules are  the  cause  of  all  diseases,  though  it  may  afford  ground 
for  suspicion  in  many  cases.  Several  instances,  somewhat  re- 
sembling the  following,  might  be  stated  :  "  A  short  time  ago,  in 
a  country  district  near  Dresden,  several  persons  were  taken  ill 
with  rheumatic  and  typhoid  symptoms,  and  one  woman  became 
gradually  worse  and  worse,  more  emaciated  and  weaker,  and  at 
length  was  removed  to  Dresden,  and  placed  under  the  care  of 
Professor  Zencker.  There  she  died.  Xo  apparent  cause  was 
present  to  account  for  her  muscular  weakness  and  pain,  her  ema- 
ciation and  death.  But  her  body  w^as  dissected,  and  it  was  no- 
ticed, on  examination  with  a  microscope,  that  the  muscular  tissue, 
which  was  everywhere  atrophied,  was  covered  with  minute  spots. 
These  spots  were  separated,  and  their  anatomical  structure  proved 
that  each  spot  was  an  encysted  entozoon,  known  to  naturalists  as 
the  trichina  sjjiralis.  The  woman's  body  was  full  of  them.  Did 
these  cause  her  death  ?  How  were  the  entozoa  introduced  ? 
Virchow  took  a  piece  of  the  muscle,  and  mixing  it  with  other 
food,  fed  rabbits  ^vith  it.  In  five  or  six  weeks  the  animals  died 
emaciated,  and  on  examination  their  muscular  system  was  found 
to  swarm  with  the  same  parasites.     The  source  of  the  mischief 


§  300.  ]  THEORIES.  231 

was  eventually  traced  to  the  flcsli  of  a  pig,  which  had  been  killed, 
cured,  and  eaten.  The  hams  and  sausage  contained  a  large  num- 
ber of  trichince.  These  experiments  not  only  proved  the  animal- 
cular  origin  of  the  disease,  but  that  the  entozoon  was  introduced 
from  without ;  that  it  was  introduced,  like  many  other  lichnintha, 
through  the  medium  of  meat  containing  living  organisms,  and  it 
pointed  with  numerous  facts  of  the  same  kind,  to  the  necessity 
of  exposing  animal  and  vegetable  substances  to  a  sufficient  de- 
gree of  heat  to  destroy  any  organic  germs  which  they  may  con- 
tain, before  they  are  used  as  human  food." — {3Iedicc(l  and  Surgical 
Bcp.,  1862.) 

(299.)  The  Cryptogamio  Theory. — It  has  been  suggested  from 
time  to  time,  that  many  diseases  are  due  in  one  way  or  another 
to  crvptogamic  vegetation,  microscopic  mushrooms,  etc.  Some 
cutaneous  diseases  have  been  found  to  consist,  in  part,  of  crypto- 
gamic  vegetation  ;  but  whether  as  a  cause  of  the  disease,  or  only 
one  of  the  symptoms,  is  not  determined.  It  may  be  merely  a 
symptom  of  wejikness  and  decay,  like  moss  on  the  bark  of  old 
trees.  The  great  epidemics  and  miasmatic  fevers  have  been 
attributed  to  microscopic  vegetation  of  this  kind  floating  in  the 
atmosphere,  and  insinuating  itself  into  our  organs.  This,  for 
all  we  know,  may  be  true  in  some  cases  ;  but  up  to  the  present 
time  no  particular  disease  has  been  definitely  connected  with  any 
particular  species  of  organism  in  the  atmosphere,  except  possibly, 
the  case  of  measles  caused  by  musty  straw ;  though  the  microscope 
has  revealed  that  the  atmosphere,  at  all  times  and  in  all  places, 
is  filled  with  various  species  of  organic  germs,  which,  under 
favorable  circumstances,  may  be  developed  into  distinct  vegeta- 
tion. It  is  impossible,  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  to 
determine  to  what  extent  variations  in  the  character  of  this  or- 
ganic dust  may  be  the  cause  of  disease ;  but  we  should  certainly 
make  a  great  mistake  if  we  should  consider  them  as  the  only  or 
even  the  principal  cause. — [Ilitchell.) 

(300.)  There  is  another  way  in  which  cryptogamio  vegetation 
has  caused  epidemics.  Various  plants,  cryptogamio  and  others, 
are  poisonous ;  and  if  these  from  any  cause  should  enter  largely 
into  the  food  of  people  at  any  particular  time,  they  will  probably 
cause  an  epidemic  disease.  The  grain  of  rye  is  subject  to  a  curi- 
ous fungous  growth,  called  ergot,  which,  entering  largely  into 


232  NAVAL   HYGIENE.  [  §  301. 

food,  has  oanscd,  in  Europe,  terrible  epidemics  of  dry  gangrene. 
Persons  inlialing  the  dust  of  nuisty  straw  have  been  aifected  with 
a  disease  resembling  measles. — [Salisbury.) 

The  endemic  called  milk  sickness,  staggers,  in  some  of  the  new 
settlements,  is  caused  by  the  cow,  deer,  and  perhaps  other  ani- 
mals eating  the  leaves  of  Mhus  toxicodendron,  for  want  of  better 
food. 

(301.)  The  zymotic  theory  {^u!ww^  to  ferment),  like  the  preced- 
ing, has  two  branches.  It  has  been  suggested  that  many  of  the 
contagious  and  epidemic  diseases  occurring  but  once  to  the  same 
individual,  they  might  be  explained  by  supposing  that  in  our 
organization  we  have  among  our  fluids  some  material  capable  of 
change  in  the  presence  of  its  appropriate  ferment,  as  sugar  is 
changed  by  fermentation  in  the  juice  of  fruits;  and  this  material 
having  once  undergone  the  fermentative  process,  we  are  neces- 
sarily exempt  from  a  second  action  of  the  same  kind.  This  at 
present  is  a  mere  hypothesis,  explaining  nothing,  and  with  all 
probability  against  it.  There  is  not  a  particle  of  evidence  of  the 
existence  of  any  such  element  in  all  the  anatomical  and  chemical 
examinations  to  which  our  solids  and  fluids  have  been  subjected ; 
but,  on  the  contrary,  it  seems  that  all  the  material  of  our  bodies 
is  being  removed  and  replaced  through  the  agency  of  nutrition, 
so  that  such  fermentative  process  once  set  up,  with  the  constant 
renewal  of  material,  could  only  cease  with  the  life  of  tlie  indi- 
vidual. 

There  is  another  zymotic  theory,  more  important  to  our  pres- 
ent purpose,  and  which,  whether  true  or  false,  requires  our  atten- 
tive consideration.  The  earth,  the  air,  and  the  water  of  densely 
inhabited  places  are  charged  with  human  and  animal  excrements 
and  remains,  and  vegetable  matter  in  process  of  decay.  This 
decay  is  •influenced  by  various  circumstances  of  heat,  moisture, 
electricity,  ferments,  etc.,  and  gives  rise  to  various  poisonous 
materials,  gaseous,  liquid,  and  solid.  When  these  things  are 
allowed  to  accumulate  to  a  great  degree  under  certain  conditions 
of  warmth  and  moisture,  disease  certainly  results  quite  indepen- 
dently of  any  imported  contagion,  or  any  foreign  source  of  evil. 
But  may  not  a  vessel,  arriving  with  yellow  fever,  bring  into  the 
locality  its  peculiar  ferment,  capable  of  starting  a  fermentation 
which  shall  result  in  the  establishment  of  yellow  fever,  rather 


§  301.  ]  THEORIES.  233 

tlian  some  other  disease  Avliieh  would  otherwise  result?  There 
are  many  facts  which  would  lead  us  to  adopt  the  affirmative  side 
of  this  question,  though  none  of  them  are  absolutely  conclusive. 
Epidemics  of  this  disease  have  generally  been  attributed  to  the 
arrival  of  a  particular  ship,  though  it  is  certain  that  this  disease 
is  not  contagious.  This  we  say  is  not  conclusive,  for  ships  arrive 
every  dav  ;  and  we  may  generally  have  our  choice  of  half  a  dozen 
vessels  which  have  arrived  on  any  day  which  may  be  found  to 
coincide  with  the  first  appearance  of  the  epidemic. 

Just  now  this  su!)ject  is  being  studied  with  great  earnestness,  and 
exery  amoeba  and  amoeboid,  monad,  bacterium,  and  vibrion,  micro- 
coccus, cryptococcus,  and  sporangium,  is  having  a  thousand  micro- 
scopes pointed  at  his  suspicious  little  body,  and  a  thousand  critic's 
eyes ;  and  even  in  the  navy,  every  ship  is  supplied  with  a  microscope 
and  other  appliances  to  hunt  out  the  little  mischiefs — omnibus  ab 
oris  maribusque.  This  earnestness  is  really  called  for  by  the 
great  importance  of  the  subject,  and  by  the  important  results 
already  realized.  A  few  years  ago  measly  pork  was  supposed  to 
be  unhealthy,  but  how  or  why  nobody  knew ;  it  is  now  well 
known,  by  the  study  of  natural  history  under  the  microscope, 
that  each  of  the  specks  is  a  young  tapeworm,  ready  to  punish  the 
man,  or  dog,  or  cat,  that  ventures  to  eat  pork.  More  recently 
Professor  Leidy  saw  under  the  microscope  some  curious  unknown 
objects  in  human  muscles  :  the  microscopes  were  pointed  at  the 
unknown  ;  they  were  found  in  various  animals ;  the  natural  his- 
tory of  trichina  sjnralis  was  studied ;  the  Hetstiidt  tragedy 
(§  276),  made  known  the  cause  and  the  ready  means  of  pre- 
venting the  awful  sausage  poison,  which  had  been  the  terror  of 
Germany  and  one  of  the  pests  of  the  world  for  centuries.  The 
workers  in  this  business  are  driven  by  an  irresistible  impulse  to 
see  and  to  know  :  besides  their  time,  they  spend  their  hardearned 
money  for  microscopes  and  expensive  accessories :  they  do  all  this 
without  expectation  of  other  reward  than  the  consciousness  of 
helping  in  the  work,  and  they  are  well  paid.  There  have  been 
counted  a  hundred  and  sixty-one  (161)  trichina  in  one  grain  of 
pig's  flesh,  so  that  a  person  eating  an  ounce  of  sausage  might 
swallow  70,437  of  them.  In  searching  for  the  cause  of  typhoid 
fever,  objects  have  been  seen  estimated  to  measure  the  fifty- 
thousandth  (5  oTo  o)  o^  '^^^  "^'^'•'^ '  ^vhether  this  is  the  cause,  or  this 


234  NAVAI.    HYGIENE.  [  §  302. 

its  measurement,  we  do  not  know,  but  probably  we  shall  know. 
The  outbreak  at  Lausen,  Switzerland  [Xdfure,  Apl.  G,  1876),  re- 
quires that  the  infective  germs  be  as  small  as  this.  Three  cases 
of  typhoid  occur  at  a  farmhouse,  a  mile  distant,  on  tlie  oppo- 
site side  of  a  mountain  ridjjje ;  the  dejections  of  the  patients  are 
thrown  into  a  l)r()ok,  which  irrigates  a  meadow  and  flows  off  in 
another  direction.  The  inhabitants  of  I^auscn,  using  the  Avater 
of  a  certain  spring,  suffer  in  large  proportion  (130  cases,  170  per 
1000) ;  those  having  private  wells  escape  entirely.  Two  thousand 
(2000)  pounds  of  salt  thrown  into  the  brook  produce  a  rapid 
increase  of  chlorine  in  the  spring,  thus  proving  the  connection. 
Fifty-six  hundred  (5G00)  pounds  of  flour  are  mixed  with  the 
water  of  the  brook,  and  no  trace  of  it  can  be  found  in  the  spring. 
This  spring  must  have  an  underground  channel  from  the  field. 
The  salt  filters  through  the  porous  soil  into  the  channel.  The  soil 
is  close  enough  to  stop  the  starch-granules  of  wheat,  but  it  is  not 
close  enough  to  stop  the  typhoid  infection.  Hence  the  fair  infer- 
ence that  typhoid  germs  are  smaller  than  starch-granules.  But 
we  need  not  be  very  positive  that  there  are  any  germs  in  the  case. 
There  are  soluble  poisons  in  existence,  and  they  cause  some  dis- 
eases, and  there  are  living  organisms  that  cause  others. 

(302.)  We  find  by  observation,  not  only  among  animals,  but 
even  in  the  inorganic  world,  the  tendency  is  for  things  to  produce 
their  own  likeness.  Thus  fire  in  contact  with  suitable  material 
produces  fire,  and  there  are  many  other  well-known  though  less 
familiar  changes  which  take  place  in  the  chemical  constitution  of 
bodies  indicated  by  the  term  cafa/ysis.  AVe  classify  many  facts  and 
lose  nothing  by  allowing  that  epidemics  may  sometimes  originate  in 
this  way.  The  accumulation  of  excretions  and  filth  to  be  con- 
verted into  pestilence  having  been  allowed  to  occur,  we  infer  the 
probability  of  an  epidemic,  whether  typhus  or  dysentery,  cholera 
or  measles,  small-pox  or  diphtheria,  is  not  determined.  But,  as  a 
spark  starts  the  conflagration,  some  apparently  trivial  circumstance 
determines  this  matter.  Whether  this  comes  about  by  animalcular 
generation,  or  cryptogamic  vegetation,  or  by  some  sort  of  cataly- 
sis more  or  less  analogous  to  combustion,  wc  do  not  know  in  all 
cases,  and  perhaps  we  shall  never  be  allowed  to  know.  We  do 
know,  however,  what  is  infinitely  more  important  to  us,  that  it 


§  303.  ]  THEORIES.  235 

could  not  have  occurred  in  either  way,  if  the  dirt  had  not  been 
aHo-wcd  to  accumulate. 

(303.)  These  considerations  enable  us  to  form  a  proper  esti- 
mate of  some  of  the  police  regulations  for  the  preservation  of 
health.  The  most  important  of  all  is  the  seasonable  removal  of 
dangerous  dirt,  decomposing  organic  material.  But  as  purity  in 
this  respect  is  not  al;)solute,  something  more  is  occasionally  neces- 
sary. In  the  latter  part  of  summer,  Avhen  domestic  filth  is  par- 
ticularly prone  to  decomposition,  a  vessel  with  yellow  fever  cases 
on  board  should  not  be  brought  to  a  wharf  in  the  midst  of  a  dense 
population ;  but  it  is  in  every  way  advantageous  to  remove  the 
passengers  and  the  sick  from  the  vessel,  subjecting  them  to  such 
restraints  as  are  necessary  for  their  comfort  and  care.  There 
appears  to  be  no  harm  in  discharging  the  vessel  into  warehouses 
at  some  distance  from  the  city,  under  the  direction  of  comi>etent 
inspectors.  With  typhus,  small-pox,  and  syphilis,  the  practice 
should  be  different.  We  must  not  countenance  the  notion  that 
these  diseases  can  be  absolutely  excluded  from  a  city  by  any  regu- 
lation, however  strict.  People  are  constantly  dying  of  these  dis- 
eases in  every  large  city,  so  that  the  contagious  germ  is  always 
near — always  present.  But  the  sufferei-s,  whether  arriving  on  a 
railroad  or  found  in  a  secluded  alley,  should  be  promptly  removed 
to  healthy  situations,  and  the  community  should  be  protected 
from  too  near  individual  contact  with  them.  I  have  known  a 
person  to  lose  his  life  by  going  into  a  barber  shop  to  have  his 
hair  trimmed  and  meeting  there  a  person  who  had  recently  re- 
covered from  small-pox.  We  want  protection  from  contagious 
diseases  in  l)arber  shops,  in  hackney  coaches,  and  in  railway  car- 
riages. 


CHAPTER    XXX. 

SUEIXAM  —  MARANPIAM HOMEWARD  BOUND STATISTICS  OF 

DISEASE PRISONS DISCIPLINE  —  REWARDS   AND  PUNISH- 
MENTS. 

(304.)  September  21st, — We  arrived  on  the  coast  of  Suri- 
nam, Dutch  Guiana,  and  liad  a  view  of  the  trees  at  the  distance 
of  a  mile  for  a  few  hours,  till  a  boat  visited  the  shore  and  re- 
turned. We  made  a  similar  visit  to  French  Guiana.  Our  next 
stopping-place  was  south  of  the  equator, —  Maranham,  Brazil. 
The  principal,  perhaps  the  only  Avhite  people,  were  a  retired  slave- 
trader  from  Kentucky  and  his  family.  The  rest  of  the  inhabi- 
tants are  a  mongrel  set  of  Indians,  Negroes,  and  Portuguese.  If 
Maranham  is  not  subject  to  severe  epidemics  of  yellow  fever,  it 
must  be  for  want  of  material, — white  people  and  unacclimated 
strangers ;  for,  though  well  situated  on  a  handsome  bluflP,  it  is  a 
badly  policed,  unclean  town,  in  a  tropical  climate.  It  is  a  small 
place,  almost  rural. 

(305.)  On  the  homeward  passage  we  spent  a  week  on  the  direct 
line  between  Fernando  Noronha  and  Bermuda,  and  although 
this  is  the  great  route  for  vessels  homeward  bound  from  nearly 
all  parts  of  the  world,  except  Europe  and  North  Africa,  we  did 
not  see  a  single  vessel  of  any  description ;  there  was  only  sky 
and  sea. 

(306.)  In  the  latitude  of  Cape  Hatteras,  in  a  storm,  we  had  a 
startling  accident :  the  outboard  ejection  was  broken  oif.  This 
is  a  cast-iron  tube,  leading  to  an  opening,  18  inches  by  30,  in  the 
outside  planking  below  the  water.  Two  minutes  lost  and  the 
ship  would  have  gone  down  in  mid-ocean.  The  firemen  seem  to 
be  always  ready  ;  boards,  blocks,  ropes,  and  wedges  were  in  place 
as  if  by  enchantment,  so  that  this  part  of  the  machinery  was 
effectually  kept  in  place.  As  many  men  as  could  get  into  the 
narrow  space  were  stationed  there  during  the  rest  of  the  passage, 


§  308.  ]  DISCIPLINE.  237 

one  or  two  to  hold  blocks  and  wedges,  while  another  was  busy 
with  a  sledge,  driving  them  back  into  their  places  as  fast  as  they 
worked  loose.  One  man  lay  on  the  top  of  the  boiler,  invisible 
except  his  hands  and  wedges,  and  could  not  be  coaxed  out  till 
our  arrival  in  New  York. 

(307.)  The  medical  history  of  this  cruise  was  not  eventful ;  as 
dull  as  the  history  of  a  country  without  either  war  or  famine : 

Average  number  of  men,       .......     299 

Number  of  days  in  commission, 438 

Whole  number  of  patients  treated, 582 

Or  1.622  per  thousand  per  annum;  so  that  on  the  average  each 
man  was  on  the  sick-list  once  in  (7J)  seven  and  a  half  months. 

Keturned  to  duty, 573 

Transferred  to  hospitals,  7  ;  sent  home,  invalids,  2 ;  total,  9  ; 

equal  to  25.1  per  thousand  sent  to  hospitals. 
Deaths, none. 

The  only  remarkable  thing  about  these  figures  is  the  large 
number  of  admissions  to  the  sick-list  without  any  serious  disease. 

(308.)  In  conclusion,  we  must  discuss  the  subject  of  discipline, 
not  with  any  idea  of  exhausting  our  subject,  but  because  this  is 
one  of  the  constantly  present  forces  whose  influence  on  health  is 
often  little  thought  of.  It  is  difficult  to  estimate  it  at  its  proper 
value ;  it  has  never  been  overestimated.  Correct  discipline,  en- 
forced by  constant  attention  to  faults,  so  that  they  rarely  escape 
notice,  and  such  reproof  and  moderate  punishments  as  do  not 
greatly  degrade  or  reduce  to  despair,  together  with  a  consistent 
example  of  Christian  kindness  and  forbearance,  with  such  as  are 
reasonably  conscious  of  their  foults,  are  the  principal  means  of 
doing  good  in  this  direction.  Mr.  Dana,  author  of  Three  Years 
before  the  Mast,  is  one  of  the  principal  benefactors  of  seamen. 
Congress,  by  abolishing  the  punishment  of  flogging,  has  done 
more  to  improve  the  health  and  character  of  seamen  than  by  any 
other  act  of  legislation.  The  enormity  of  this  outrageous  bar- 
barity, wdiich  continued  in  considerable  vigor  up  to  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  could  hardly  be  believed  without  the 


238  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  008. 

evidence  of  official  records ;  but  this  evidence  exists  in  the  re- 
turns of  punishments  on  file  in  the  Xavy  De'partment  and  in  the 
old  log-books.  This  barbarism  was  swept  away  by  act  of  Con- 
gress in  1850,  and  the  transition  to  a  better  system  has  been  more 
rapid  and  attended  with  less  confusion  than  could  readily  have 
been  imajrined.  Some  officers  seemed  to  think  that  all  lawful 
means  of  discipline  were  done  away  with  among  these  degraded 
men,  and  in  their  effi^rts  to  discover  punishments,  according  to 
the  usages  of  the  sea-service,  not  prohibited  by  law,  and  in  some 
degree  corresponding  to  their  notions  of  necessary  severity,  they 
reinvented  some  of  the  obsolete  tortures  of  the  Middle  Ages, — the 
drunkard's  jacket,  the  wooden  horse,  etc.  But  these  things  were 
never  common,  and  have  nearly  passed  into  oblivion. 

In  the  Blue  Book  of  1876,  we  find  the  following  order :  "Cells 
for  the  confinement  of  prisoners,  are  not  to  be  less  than  6|  feet 
long  and  3j  feet  broad,  with  full  height  [seven  feet]  between 
decks,  and  are  to  be  properly  ventilated."  This  is  22.75  square 
feet  (^m^  1044)  of  floor  surface,  and  160  cubic  feet  (4ni',  48)  of 
air  space.  It  would  not  seem  proper  to  appropriate  more  space 
for  this  exclusive  purpose  aboard  ships  in  regular  commission ; 
it  is  about  four  times  the  size  of  the  previously  authorized  cells, 
which  were  not  much  used  except  for  ornament  or  for  the  ward- 
robe of  the  master-at-arms.  These  cells  are  to  be  "properly 
ventilated.'^  I  have  had  some  opportunities  of  observing  what 
was  considered  proper  ventilation ;  and  I  will  relate  a  case,  omit- 
ting names  and  dates  merely  to  avoid  suspicion  of  willingness  to 
indulge  in  personal  criticism.  One  fine  morning  I  received  at 
the  hospital  a  patient  who  came  in  charge  of  a  strong  guard, 
with  the  usual  hospital  ticket,  and  a  private  message,  intimating 
that  the  man  was  serving  out  a  court-martial  sentence,  and  it  was 
important  tliat  he  should  not  be  allowed  to  escape;  he  was 
ansemic,  bleached  nearly  to  death,  could  scarcely  stand  up  a  mo- 
ment without  fainting.  He  rapidly  recovered,  declaring  his  three 
hours  a  day  running  in  the  garden,  the  very  best  medicine  he  had 
ever  heard  of.  But  the  man  is  a  convict,  and  something  else 
must  be  done,  or  he  goes  back  to  serve  out  the  rest  of  his  sentence. 
My  first  visit  was  to  the  surgeon,  under  whose  care  the  patient 
first  came,  to  see  how  the  land  lay  without  exciting  attention. 
The  i^rison  is  a  hulk,  not  f\t  to  confine  prisoners  for  any  long 


§  308.  ]  DISCIPLINE.  239 

period ;  but  there  arc  prisoners  sentenced  to  various  terms,  one 
of  them  as  much  as  five  years.  About  a  year  ago  a  commission 
found  it  unfit  for  a  prison  and  recommended  it  to  be  broken  up. 
Everything  about  it  is  neatly  kept  by  a  colonel  of  marines  in 
command,  a  courteous  gentleman,  but  it  is  killing  the  men — 
delenda  est.  A  copy  of  the  repoi-t  of  the  commission  was  found ; 
it  merely  stated  that  the  hulk  is  unsuitable  for  a  prison,  and  rec- 
ommended that  it  be  discontinued.  A  visit  to  the  commandant 
of  the  station  supplied  important  information.  The  care  of  such 
prisoners  is  troublesome  ;  they  were  transferrcxl  to  the  ship  from 
a  worse  place.  A  commission  had  recommended  a  change,  but 
nothing  better  was  suggested,  and  nothing  came  of  it.  A  visit 
to  the  colonel  in  command  was  satisfactory.  It  included  an  in- 
vitation to  inspect  the  cefls.  Immediately  below  the  spar-deck 
are  the  cells;  a  corridor  (5)  five  feet  wide  runs  lengthways  through 
the  centre ;  on  each  side  are  the  cells,  about  ten  on  each  side,  (12) 
twelve  feet  square  and  (3)  eight  feet  high.  There  is  a  narrow  pas- 
sageway between  the  back  of  the  cells  and  the  side  of  the  ship. 
The  door  of  each  cell  has  a  grated  opening  for  ventilation  (24  by 
18  inches),  three  square  feet  area,  and  there  is  a  similar  ventila- 
tion aperture  back  of  the  cell,  just  opposite  a  circular  air-port 
(7)  seven  inches  in  diameter.  There  are  about  six  prisoners,  and 
the  place  is  scrupulously  neat.  It  would  not  do  to  stop  here,  or 
the  abomination  would  stand  forever.  Prisoners  are  perverse 
fellows,  and  have  confederates  outside.  To  prevent  improper  com- 
munications, it  was  necessary  to  obstruct  entrances  to  the  side 
passages.  The  openings  opposite  the  air-ports  were  occasionally 
closed  to  prevent  communication  by  boats.  Some  of  the  grated 
openings  in  the  doors  had  to  be  made  closer,  especially  for  pris- 
oners sentenced  to  a  diet  of  bread  and  water.  Two  or  three  of 
the  doors  had  boards  nailed  tight  over  the  ventilation  apertures, 
and  auger-holes  bored  for  ventilation  ;  in  one  of  the  doors,  prob- 
ably the  worst  one,  I  counted  (17)  seventeen  auger-holes,  (|) 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  This  was  inspection  enough. 
A  commission  had  already  recommended  the  discontinuance  of  this 
prison,  in  language  so  tame  that  the  report  rested  quietly  in  its 
pigeon-hole.  Another  style  of  report  must  be  written.  The  gen- 
eral good  order  is  commended  "without  superfluous  Avords.  The 
gradual  obstruction  of  ventilation,  with  its  causes,  was  alluded 


240  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  308. 

to,  on  the  berth-deck  of  a  ship — about  as  well  ventilated  as  a  good 
cellar  at  best;  the  aggregate  area  of  the  17  holes,  |  inch,  was 
carefully  computed,  and  found  to  equal  one  hole  of  (2.38)  two 
inches  and  thirty-eight  hundredths,  about  the  ordinary  size  of  the 
buncj-'hole  of  a  barrel.  The  idea  of  a  man  iu  a  barrel,  and  re- 
ceiving his  allowance  of  air  and  light  through  the  bung-hole, 
carried  the  dav.  The  prison  was  discontinued  in  the  course  of  a 
week,  preliminary  orders  having  arrived  by  return  of  mail.  So 
far  as  the  navy  is  concerned,  where  these  sentences  are  very  few, 
and  can  only  be  adjudged  for  oifences  punishable  with  death,  this 
incident  is  not  worth  recording ;  but  in  the  United  States  there 
are  more  than  (1000)  one  thousand  county  prisons,  some  of  them 
no  better  than  they  should  be.  This  incident  shows  to  what  the 
best  of  them  tend,  even  when  managed  by  courteous  and  estimable 
gentlemen,  when  there  is  no  efficient  system  of  independent  in- 
spection. Proper  ventilation  is  apt  to  mean  a  hole  in  the  door  or 
in  the  wall,  without  reference  to  the  fact  that  the  whole  arrange- 
ment is  in  a  poorly  ventilated  building. 

With  a  very  full  share  of  sea-service,  it  is  curious  that  I  have 
never  seen  any  of  the  horrible  tortures  that  have  been  described 
as  the  necessary  consequence  of  the  abolition  of  flogging.  The 
difficulty  seemed  absolutely  irremediable  to  an  officer  who  had 
grown  up  under  the  notion  that  disorders  are  to  be  suppressed 
only  by  punishment.  As  for  imprisonment,  the  ship  at  sea  is  a 
close  enough  prison.  Additional  pain  might  be  inflicted  by  flog- 
ging ;  confinement  in  a  cell  was  only  a  relief  from  rough  hard 
labor,  unless  smothering  or  starvation  could  be  added  ;  confine- 
ment in  irons  'svas  no  punishment  at  all,  unless  so  arranged  as  to 
impose  a  painful  attitude — it  was  only  punishing  the  other  men 
who  had  to  do  the  work.  On  rare  occasions  these  tortures  have 
been  inflicted ;  and  I  accidentally  learned  of  a  characteristic  series 
of  them.  A  number  of  men  were  to  be  tried  for  desertion,  and 
some  annoying  busybody  put  it  into  their  heads  to  ask  me  to  de- 
fend them.  1  kiarned  from  the  commandant  that  the  men  had 
been  punished  about  enough  already,  but  if  I  would  accede  to 
their  wislies,  they  would  probably  go  into  the  trial  more  cheer- 
fully, do  better,  and  give  less  trouble.  The  private  statements  of 
these  men  coincide  in  all  important  particulars.  The  following  is 
selected  as  being  the  most  graphic. 


§  308.  ]  DISCIPLINE.  241 

*'  You  left  tlic  boiit,  of  course,  and  tliey  will  be  likely  to  prove 
it,  but  you  have  an  excuse ;  tell  me  all  about  it." 

"  I  (lid  leave ;  I  have  done  wrong,  try  to  do  right,  and  hope 
that  I  have  succeeded  so  far  as  to  have  the  good  opinion  of  the 
officers  and  men  that  know  me.  I  left  on  ac(;ount  of  the  terrible 
system  of  punishment;  have  no  fault  to  find  with  my  ow^n  treat- 
ment, but  could  not  help  seeing  terrible  punishments  inflicted, 
not  for  crimes  only,  but  for  all  sorts  of  petty  offences.  Solitary 
confinement  on  bread  and  water  'svas  a  common  punishment ;  it 
meant  being  locked  up  in  a  dark  closet  with  a  bucket.  This  un- 
painted  wooden  bucket  is  emptied  every  evening  when  hammocks 
are  piped,  and  it  smells  in  hot  weather  like  anything.  It  is  a 
ziuisance,  not  only  to  the  prisoner,  but  to  all  the  men  sleeping 
near  the  cells.  The  cells  are  thirty  inches  scpiare,  the  door  with- 
out any  opening  for  ventilation  except  a  crack  at  the  top.  A 
man  fainted  in  one  of  these  cells,  and  they  had  to  carry  him  to  the 
windsail  and  sprinkle  him  with  water  before  he  revived.  The 
punishment  of  '  confinement  in  double  irons,'  is  to  have  regular 
irons  on  the  legs,  and  the  hands  ironed  behind,  and  fastened  to  a 
chain  three  feet  long  hanging  from  a  beam  above ;  this  chain  is 
long  enough  for  a  man  to  stand  at  ease,  and  when  he  gets  tired 
of  that  he  can  turn  around  till  his  chain  gets  twisted,  and  then  he 
can  go  around  the  other  way ;  bat  the  men  get  too  tired  of  it  for 
anything,  and  so  they  lean  forward  and  hang  by  the  hands. 
They  sometimes  go  to  sleep  hanging  in  this  \\ay.  Sometimes  the 
irons  make  the  wrists  a  little  sore,  but  they  are  pretty  smooth, 
and  do  not  fit  so  close  but  that  the  prisoners  get  bits  of  rag  be- 
tween, and  thus  save  their  arms  a  little.  Sometimes  they  try  to 
stand  up  so  long  that  they  get  to  sleep  standing,  and  then  they 
are  liable  t(5  fall  suddenly,  so  as  to  hurt  themselves  by  coming  up 
wdtli  a  jerk  on  the  chain.  Tricing  up  was  a  lighter  punishment, 
in  ^vhich  men  were  tied  up  alongside  of  the  reel.  These  punish- 
ments, though  terrible  to  look  at,  need  not  frighten  a  correct  man 
if  they  were  only  inflicted  for  serious  offences.  The  terrible  thing 
is,  that  they  are  inflicted  for  the  smallest  breach  of  discipline, — 
occasional  awk^vardness  at  work,  want  of  smartness  at  learning, 
and  such  other  things  as  no  man  whatever  can  be  sure  of  escaping. 
I  have  known  a  man  to  be  confined  in  a  cell  on  V)read  and  water 
for  awkwardness  and  stupidity  in  handling  his  musket.     But  the 

16 


242  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  308. 

woi-st  things  are  not  called  punishment  at  all.  Early  in  the 
cruise  the  men  were  dissatisfied  and  tried  to  run  (desert).  After 
they  were  punished  for  attempts  of  this  kind,  they  were  secured 
every  evening  for  safe-keeping.  They  were  ironed  in  a  row  by 
the  feet  to  eye-bolts  and  shot-racks.  The  most  celebrated  of  these 
runners  was  a  chap  I  think  his  name  was  Humphreys.  One 
evening  at  chaining-up  time  he  could  not  be  found  ;  no  matter 
how  nuich  they  called  he  did  not  come.  He  was  found  and  secured 
on  the  spot,  not  a  pleasant  place,  and  left  there  for  five  days. 
The  next  time  Colty  was  missed  he  was  not  so  easily  found. 
The  boatswain's  mates  had  a  noisy  time,  whistling  and  calling, 
'  Colty  JMatthews  !  Do  you  hear,  there,  Colty  INIatthews  ?'  This 
lasted  till  near  midnight,  and  the  men  in  their  hammocks  wished 
all  the  colts  and  all  the  boatswains  in  the  warm  place.  INIatthews 
had  found  a  box  iu  a  dark  corner  under  the  heel  of  the  bowsprit, 
filled  with  wash-deck  gear,  and  when  the  concert  came  off  he  was 
sleeping  so  soundly  that  he  did  not  hear  it  at  all,  or  more  likely 
he  was  peeping  behind  the  squilgees  and  laughing  all  the  time. 
Towards  morning  a  noise  was  heard  like  the  grating  of  holy- 
stones, and  he  was  found  sleeping  very  comfortably.  I  never 
heard  that  anybody  had  the  heart  to  wake  him.  But  in  the 
morning  he  was  reported,  the  squilgees  were  cleared  out,  he  was 
put  back  in  the  box  and  a  lid  was  nailed  on.  The  lid  had  a 
round  hole  near  the  corner,  large  enough  to  pass  a  tin-cup.  When 
he  got  out  he  was  as  much  inclined  to  run  as  ever ;  he  left  and 
returned  no  more.  Alas,  poor  Colty !  I  have  told  this  in  a 
laughing  way,  but  it  was  no  joke  for  the  man  nailed  up  in  the  box. 
The  officers  never  spoke  of  the  men  as  horses  or  colts,  and  the 
boatswains  did  not  sing  out  for  Colty  Matthews,  but  I  suppose 
used  his  first  name ;  do  not  remember  his  name ;  do  not  know 
whether  the  captain  ever  knew  of  the  man  being  nailed  up  in  the 
box ;  do  not  know  whether  the  executive  officer  ever  saw  it ;  do 
not  know  who  nailed  on  the  lid.  The  box  was  four  or  five 
feet  long,  nearly  two  feet  high.  Do  not  know  who  ordered  it 
nailed  down,  or  who  nailed  it  down ;  but  I  saw  the  man  in  it. 
I  think  there  was  something  wrong  in  the  way  of  examining 
offences.  Punishment  was  common  enough,  but  it  was  not  common 
to  see  the  captain  examining  cases  at  the  mast,  the  accused  facing 
the  witnesses;  have   seen   it,  })ut   it  was  not  the  conunoji    way. 


§  308.  ]  DISCIPLINE.  243 

Thiiiijs  were  reported  l)v  the  master-at-arms  or  the  sliip's  corpo- 
ral and  nobody  else  called;  and  mayl)e  they  snggested  tlie  pun- 
ishments, particularly  those  with  a  spice  of  wit  or  nastiness.  They 
must  have  thought  it  a  good  joke  when  ]\Iatthews  was  nailed  up 
in  his  l)ox.  The  ship  has  always  been  a  hard  ship.  In  the  be- 
ginning we  had  a  good  crew  :  there  were  1500  men  on  the  receiv- 
ing-ship when  we  fitted  out,  so  that  there  were  plenty  to  choose 
from.  If  they  could  not  choose  they  had  to  take  them  as  they 
came,  so  that  there  must  have  been  a  pretty  fair  average.  There 
were  some  very  good  men,  and  some  very  bad.  Yes,  I  must  tell 
about  myself.  Was  never  much  punished ;  was  captain  of  the 
mizzen-top ;  something  w^ent  wrong,  and  we  were  called  lubbers ; 
the  men  did  not  like  it  and  found  fault  with  me,  so  I  went  down 
and  asked  to  be  disrated ;  did  not  know  how  soon  my  time  might 
come  to  be  punished  for  some  fault  that  I  could  not  possibly 
avoid,  and  I  felt  very  badly.  So  when  the  ship  was  going  to 
sail,  I  staid  ashore  and  hid  till  I  had  a  chance  to  go  aboard  the 
other  ship  ;  was  kept  in  double  irons  about  a  week ;  haxe  been 
on  duty  ever  since,  mostly  in  a  boat;  have  never  been  punished 
since.     I  hope  the  court  will  be  lenient  with  me." 

The  reader  who  has  become  interested  in  the  above  narrative 
should  know  some  additional  particulars.  The  narrator  Avas  aided 
and  encouraged  by  a  steady  fire  of  leading  questions.  On  his 
trial  he  received  an  excellent  character;  no  one  was  able  to 
specify  an  oifence  for  which  he  had  been  punished ;  he  was  the 
smartest  man  they  had  ever  seen  aloft.  He  was  defended  in  a 
two-minute  speech  showing  how  he  hated  to  be  called  a  lubber, 
and  ignoring  conclusive  evidence  of  guilt,  the  court  acquitted 
him.  The  other  men  were  found  guilty  and  sentenced,  but  the 
revising  officer,  keeping  his  word  to  consider  them  punished 
enough,  the  findings  and  sentences  were  formally  approved,  but 
in  consideration  of  previous  good  character,  or  subsequent  good 
conduct,  or  that  they  had  already  been  punished — in  consideration 
of  something  good  or  something  bad,  the  punishment  was  re- 
mitted. John  ]\Iatthews,  Colty,  was  nailed  up  for  five  days  in  a 
box,  four  feet  long,  three  feet  wide,  and  two  feet  high,  notched  on 
one  side  to  fit  under  the  heel  of  the  bowsprit.  One  man  lived 
fifteen  consecutive  days  in  a  sweat-box.  The  officers  principally 
responsible  for  these  outrages   were  eventuallv  tried  bv   court- 


244  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  309. 

martial^  convicted,  sentenced,  and  punished,  and  one  of  them  is 
believed  to  have  ended  liis  unhappy  career  by  suicide. 

It  has  been  asked,  What  has  this  matter  of  discipline  and 
puuishnuMits  to  do  with  your  business  of  care  for  the  sick  ? 
There  really  are  men  so  constituted  that  it  appears  necessary  to 
answer  very  plainly  this  question. 

(309.)  Clergymen,  lawyers  and  physicians,  judges,  juries  and 
magistrates,  philanthropists,  philosophers  and  essayists,  the  think- 
ing part  of  mankind,  are  now  divided  into  two  great  parties  by 
their  differences  of  opinion  as  to  the  best  way  to  treat  the  degraded, 
the  imbecile,  and  the  criminal.  These  parties  may  be  called  the 
reward  party  and  the  punishment  party.  The  punhhrnent  jmrty 
should  come  first,  being  the  most  ancient.  It  cites  Divine  au- 
thority ;  offences  must  be  adequately  punished.  If  you  reward 
the  criminal  and  the  worthless,  you  compel  the  poor  man  to  be- 
come criminal,  so  that  by  hypocrisy  he  may  come  in  for  some  of 
the  good  things  going.  The  reward  party,  which  probably  in- 
cludes nearly  all  the  physicians,  take  a  different  view  of  the 
matter.  The  poor  man,  whether  criminal  or  not,  whether  aboard 
ship  or  in  prison,  when  obliged  to  do  the  roughest  and  hardest 
work,  and  to  live  on  the  cheapest  food  capable  of  maintaining 
health  and  strength,  is  in  a  position  wdiere  not  much  more  in  the 
way  of  punishment  can  be  inflicted  without  impairing  his  strength 
to  labor ;  you  may  flog  him,  but  this  degradation  impresses  him 
in  such  a  way  that  he  rarely  gets  over  the  vilification  so  far  as  to 
be  of  any  value  for  labor  ;  you  may  confine  him  in  a  painful  posi- 
tion, but  his  limbs  so  stiffen  under  this  treatment  that  his  labor 
is  very  much  lessened  in  value ;  you  may  star\  e  or  smother  him, 
but  this  does  not  mend  the  matter ;  you  may  hang  him,  and  if  a 
constitutional  murderer,  this  is  i)erhaps  the  very  best  thing  to  do 
witli  him,  for  otherwise  he  is  likely  to  be  pardoned  and  permitted 
to  commit  more  murders.  When  a  man  is  in  prison  on  prison 
fare,  there  is  not  much  more  of  physical  punishment  available 
without  destroying  his  health  and  ability  to  labor ;  and  when  we 
consider  the  facility  of  the  step  of  petty  larceny,  for  instance,  or 
shipping  to  relieve  pressing  w'ant,  the  strength  of  these  young 
men  may  be  worth  preserving.  The  undertaking  is  by  no  means 
a  desperate  one.  All  men,  and  some  beasts,  are  greatly  influenced 
by  their  consciousness  of  what  is  thought  of  them,  their  love  of 


§  309.  ]  REWARDS    AND    PUNISHMENTS.  245 

approbation.  We  have  seen  on  a  jii-evious  page  that  men  were 
vexed  and  punished  by  being  called  lubbers.  This  is  a  good  and 
legitimate  punishment,  but  it  should  not  be  spoiled  by  being  made 
too  common,  and,  applied  to  a  large  party  of  men,  may  reach 
some  one  who  does  not  deserve  it ;  "  Very  well  done  on  the  main- 
yard,"  might  have  done  as  well,  particularly  if  the  men  on  the 
main-yard  deserved  it,  for  men  will  really  work  harder  to  gain 
praise  than  they  will  to  avoid  censure,  but  the  ofticer  in  charge 
of  the  work  is  the  proper  judge  of  this,  and  perhaps  he  could 
not  see  any  work  deserN'ing  praise  at  that  particular  time. 

In  the  navy,  the  reward  party  is  likely  to  carry  the  day.  For- 
merly by  law  all  serious  offences  were  punishable  with  ''death,  or 
such  other  punishment  as  a  court-martial  shall  adjudge,"  but  in 
practice  nearly  everything,  from  spitting  on  the  deck  to  murder, 
was  punished  by  flogging ;  more  anciently  it  was  keel-hauling, 
throwing  the  man  overboard  and  pulling  him  up  again  before  he 
was  quite  drowned.  We  now  have  a  Blue  Book  of  regulations, 
in  which  the  section  on  rewards  is  half  as  long  as  the  section  on 
punishments,  and  better  still,  while  the  punishments  are  awarded 
for  specific  offences,  some  of  the  rewards  accrue  from  the  mere 
absence  of  punishment  or  of  bla('k-mark  reports.  It  is  a  rather 
elaborate  system,  requiring  some  keeping  of  books,  but  it  em- 
braces every  enlisted  man,  and  is  producing  most  admirable  re- 
sults. 

There  is  no  occasion  to  misunderstand  this  matter.  The  re- 
wards, in  the  ordinary  sense,  are  not  rewards  at  all.  When  a 
man  does  his  work  well  it  is  hardly  a  reward  to  tell  him  so. 
When  he  receives  better  pay  for  better  work,  it  is  only  fair  com- 
pensation. When  honorably  discharged,  a  bargain  is  made  with 
him  that  he  may  reship  on  better  terms  than  a  stranger  just  from 
the  penitentiary.  When  he  is  allowed  a  portion  of  his  pay  at 
stated  periods  to  meet  his  little  wants,  he  is  treated  with  some 
little  show  of  decency  and  justice.  When  a  fair  record  of  his 
conduct  is  kept,  so  as  to  distinguish  the  good  man  from  the  in- 
different and  bad,  we  are  only  making  a  decent  effort  to  give  him 
reasonable  credit  for  what  he  is  worth.  But  these  are  the  rewards 
of  which  we  think  so  much ;  for  they  produce  good  order,  good 
health,  and  good  work.  The  punishments  are  mostly  of  a  very 
different  character,  such  as  death,  imprisonment  for  life,  or  for  a 


24Q  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  309. 

term  of  years  at  liard  labor,  fine  and  imprisonment,  imprison- 
ment with  or  without  irons,  solitary  confinement  on  bread  and 
water.  AVe  have,  however,  advanced  so  far  in  the  right  direc- 
tion, that  some  of  the  punishments  are  merely  withdrawing  or 
withholding  of  the  rewards,  reduction  to  the  next  inferior  rating 
A\ith  corresponding  loss  of  pay,  deprivation  of  liberty  on  shore, 
the  withholding  of  liberty-money,  praising  the  other  fellows. 

One  thing  more  is  needed :  the  statistics  of  punishment  should 
be  studied  where  the  records  are  kept;  and  annually  there 
shonld  be  published,  for  the  information  of  Congress,  a  statistical 
report  showing  the  number  of  punishments  in  each  squadron, 
for  each  description  of  oifence,  the  number  per  thousand  of  mean 
force,  etc.  Such  reports  would  surely  show  us  the  effect  of  each 
act  of  legislation,  and  of  each  description  of  reward  and  punish- 
ment ;  and  they  would  thus  greatly  aid  in  removing  disorders  of 
the  criminal  character.  Both  offences  and  punishments  would 
diminish  still  more  rapidly. 


APPENDIX. 


WEIGHTS   AXD   MEASURES. 


(310.)  The  confusion  that  exists  on  this  subject  is  curious. 
Anciently  every  city  had  its  own  yardstick,  differing  somewhat 
from  the  yardstick  of  its  neighbors ;  in  modern  times  one  of  them 
was  selected  to  be  the  yardstick,  and  an  exact  copy  of  it  was  made 
and  deposited  in  the  Tower  of  London :  this  curious  piece  of 
platinum  is  the  standard  of  reference  for  all  our  weights  and 
measures.  The  carpenter's  measuring-rule,  about  as  long  as  his 
foot,  is  the  third  of  the  yard ;  it  is  divided  into  twelve  inches, 
and  these  are  our  measures  of  length.  To  avoid  the  confusion 
that  must  occur  if  the  standard  measure  be  lost,  a  pendulum 
beating  seconds,  mean  time,  in  the  latitude  of  London,  in  a 
vacuum,  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  was  measured  and  found  to  be 
39.1393  inches,  or  1.087175  yards. 

MEASURES    OF    LENGTH    AND    SURFACE. 

J.   Cloth  Pleasure. 

One  yard,  yard  =  36  inches,  is  simply  divided  into  halves, 
quarters,  and  eighths.     Formerly  the  arrangement  was : 

2f  inches  make     .......     1  nail, 

4  nails, 1  quarter, 

4  quarters,  .         .         ...         .         .         .         .1  yard, 

3  quarters, 1  ell  Flemish. 

5  quarters, 1  ell  English. 

//.   Timber  Ileasure. 

1  foot  =12  inches  =  144  lines  =  1728  seconds.  The  duo- 
decimal subdivision  continuing  indefinitely  is  used  for  surface 
and  cubic  measurements  and  computations.  Formerly  3  barley- 
corns made  1  inch,  etc. 


248  NAVAL    HYGIENE.  [  §  311. 


III.  Road  Measure. 

I  mile  =  8  furlongs  =  320  rods  =  1760  yards. 
1  furlong  =    40  rods  =    220  yards. 

1  rod,  pole,  or  perch  =  o.o  yards  =  16.5  feet. 

IV.  Land  Measure. 

1  acre     =  4  roods  =  100  perches  =  4840  S(iuare  yards. 
1  perch  =  30.25  sq.  yd.  =^  272.25  scpiare  feet. 

MEASURES   OF   A7EIGHT. 

(oil.)  Ill  this  \\T)rk  .Severn]  kinds  of  weight  are  used,  and  oc- 
casionally in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  the  careful  reader  in  doubt 
as  to  the  particular  weight  intendexl.  For  instance  (§  144),  we 
read  that  two  seamen,  being  informed  that  the  Cape  toad-fish  is 
poisonous,  determined  to  try  the  experiment  on  themselves,  and 
ate  part  of  one  fish,  weighing  four  drachms.  4  drachms  avoir- 
dupois is  =  109f  troy  grains,  and  4  drachms  troy  is  =240 
grains ;  in  strictness  we  should  conclude  that  the  quantity  was 
109|  grains,  though  the  writer  probably  meant  240  grains;  but 
in  this  case  the  confusion  of  weights  i.s  not  important,  as  the  fools 
were  both  dead  in  less  than  twenty  minutes. 

Our  standard  of  weight  is  a  troy  pound,  deposited  with  the 
yardstick  in  the  Tower  of  London.  One  cubic  inch  of  distilled 
water,  at  62°  F.,  and  30  inches  bar.,  weighs  252.458  grains. 

V.  Avoirdupois  Weight. 

1  pound,  1  ft  =  16  ounces     =  7000  grains. 
1  ounce,  1  oz.  =  16  drachms  =  437i  grains. 

VI.  Apothecaries  Weight. 

1  pound,         riij  =  12  troy  ounces  =  5760  grains. 

I  troy  ounce,  5J  ^   8  drachms        =    480  grains. 

1  drachm,        3j  =   3  scruples         =     60  grains. 

1  scruple,        9J  =  =20  grains. 

1  grain,         gr.  j  =  =  ^^\^  pound. 

The  United  States  Pharmacopoeia  uses  the  troy  ounce,  480 
grains  to  the  ounce ;  the  British  Pharmacopoeia  uses  avoirdupois 
pounds  and  ounces,  437 1  grains  to  the  ounce. 


§311.] 


APPENDIX. 


249 


MEASURES   OF  CAPACITY. 
VIZ.  Liquid  3Icasures  of  the  United  States  rharmacopceia. 

One  minim,  "Kj  =   .93G9  grains. 

One  fluid  drachm,  fjj  =  60  minims. 

One  fluid  ounce,  f^j  =    8  fluid  drachms. 

One  pint  (octans),  Oj  =  16  fluid  ounces. 

One  gallon  (congius),  Congi  =    8  ))ints. 
One  pint  of  distilled  water  at  60°  F.,  30  in.  bar.,  wciglis  7291.1109  grains. 

VIII.  Liquid  Pleasure  of  the  British  Fharmaeopoeia. 
1  minim  =  .91146  grain. 

1  fluid  drachm  =  GO  minims  ==  54.6875  grains. 

1  fluid  ounce     =    8  fluid  drachms  =  437.5  grains. 
1  pint  =  20  fluid  ounces     =  8750  grains. 

1  gallon  =    8  pints  =  70,000  grains. 

One  gallon  of  distilled  water  at  62°  F.,  30  inches  barometer,  weighs  70,000 
grains. 

IX.  Liquid  Pleasures  of  the  U.  S.  P.,  compared  icith  other  ineasures 
of  capacity,  and  the  weight  in  grains  of  ivater  cd  60°  F. 


United  States 
Pharmacopa'ia. 

<5 

III 

&  " 
3 

fO   3 

c  S]    . 

SCO    M 
Ctr~  ^ 

=    li.S 

Pints, 

B.P.  =  .34.6592  cubic 

inches. 

.3 

CM 

a 

Gallon,  .     .     . 

231 

0.1337 

133.2980 

6.6649 

0.83311 

58,328.8872 

Pint,       .     .     . 

28.875 

0.0167 

16.66225 

0.8331 

0.10414 

7,291.1109 

Fluid  ounce,  . 

1.80469 

0.00104 

1.04146 

0.0521 

0.00651 

455.6944 

Flnid  drachm, 

0.22559 

0.00013 

0.13016 

0.0065 

0.00081 

56.2118 

Minim,  .     .     . 

0.00375 

0.00002 

0.00217 

0.0001 

0.00014 

0.9369 

1  cubic  foot 

=  7.4805 

gallons  =  5 

9.6442 

pints. 

1  gallon  B.  ] 

P.  =  1.20 

328  gallon. 

1  fluid  ounc 

s  B.  P.  = 

.96025  fluid 

ounce. 

The  foregoing  are  some  of  the  weights  and  measures  in  com- 
mon use  in  the  United  States  and  in  Great  Britain.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  understand  all  of  them  if  we  would  read  intelligently 
common  books  of  science  in  our  own  language.  To  understand 
common  market  reports  of  the  prices,  etc.,  of  commodities,  we 
must  understand  some  more.  They  are  gradually  undergoing 
modification ;  the  unreasonable  subdivisions  are  omitted,  and  in 


250  NAVAL   HYGIENE.  [  §  312. 

the  market-place  binary  fractions — lialves,  fourths,  and  eighths — 
are  substituted.  In  works  of  science  the  decimal  fractions  are 
used,  as  being  more  in  accordance  with  our  system  of  decimal 
arithmetic.  But  this  is  a  slow  process,  that  brings  us  no  nearer 
to  any  international  standard,  and  it  does  not  satisfy  men  con- 
scious that  much  valuable  time  is  wasted  over  the  needless  com- 
plications. In  France,  during  the  first  republic,  an  effort  was 
made  to  correct  this,  together  with  all  otlier  absurdities,  as  they 
were  supposed,  of  the  social  condition.  It  was  not  thought 
philosophical  to  take  for  the  standard  of  measures  either  the 
length  of  the  cloth-merchant's  arms  or  his  measuring-stick,  or 
the  length  of  the  carpenter's  foot  or  of  his  foot-rule;  but  the 
forty-millionth  part  of  the  circumference  of  the  earth,  measured 
over  the  poles,  might  ansAver ;  to  be  consistent,  it  should  be  the 
hundred-millionth.  This  starting-point  is  called  a  meter  {,'j.sTpov, 
a  measure,  a  meter) ;  and  it  is  found  to  be  a  little  longer  than 
the  English  yardstick,  or  even  the  seconds  pendulum.  It  had 
been  observed  that  the  Chinese  use  a  system  of  decimal  subdi- 
visions in  their  weights  and  measures,  corresponding  Avith  the 
system  of  decimal  arithmetic,  and  it  was  thought  right  to  learn 
reason  and  common  sense  even  from  the  heathen ;  hence  ^ve  have 
the  French  metrical  system. 

(312.)  It  seems  quite  im])ossible  for  us  to  realize  the  immense 
advantages  we  enjoy  from  the  fact  that,  in  every  known  country 
of  the  world,  the  system  of  numeration  is  the  same.  This  system 
happens  to  be  decimal.  Whatever  is  written  or  spoken  in  any 
language  in  reference  to  numbers  is  decimal.  As  far  as  history 
goes  no  other  system  is  known,  except  as  a  matter  of  philosophical 
speculation.  The  ethnological  inference,  however,  is  that  other 
systems  have  been  in  use.  The  inhabitants  of  Northwest  Mexico, 
according  to  Clavigero,  counted  regularly  up  to  four,  the  luimber 
of  fingers  on  one  hand,  and  then  they  counted  four  and  one,  four 
and  two,  etc.  The  islanders  of  the  Pacific  counted  up  to  five,  and 
then  said  five  and  one,  five  and  two,  etc.,  including  the  thumb, 
to  make  their  full  number;  or,  possibly,  they  counted  by  the  toes. 
The  people  of  Central  and  Southern  Asia  nuist  have  counted  all 
the  fingers  of  both  hands,  including  the  thumbs,  to  get  their  com- 
plete number,  and  then  they  counted  ten  and  one,  ten  and  two, 
etc. :  this  is  the  decimal  system  that  colonists  carried  to  Greece, 


§  312.  ]  APPENDIX.  251 

and  Italy,  and  Spain.  The  emig-rants  from  Central  Asia,  moving 
north  and  west,  perhaps  had  freqnent  occasion  to  place  their 
fingers  and  toes  near  together  to  keep  them  Marm,  and  they 
counted  them  all  up  to  twenty  for  a  complete  number,  and  then 
went  on  counting  twenty  and  one,  twenty  and  two,  etc. ;  and  we 
find  a  remnant  of  this  vigesimal  system  in  the  present  French 
four-twenties,  four  twenties  and  one,  etc. ;  and  in  English  litera- 
ture, two  scores  and  five,  three  scores,  etc.,  now  about  obsolete. 
But  this  is  a  very  primitive  condition  of  the  science  of  numbers, 
which  even  the  crow  is  imagined  in  some  degree  to  possess,  M-hen 
it  is  insisted  that  he  can  count  as  high  as  three,  the  number  of 
toes  on  the  front  of  his  foot. 

The  decimal  system  of  numbering  has  become  universal,  prob- 
ably from  the  habits  of  the  Arabs  sitting  on  the  floor  and  count- 
ing their  toes  when  they  invented  arithmetic  and  algebra.  If 
they  had  worn  shoes  and  counted  on  their  fingers,  we  might  have 
had  an  octaval  system  of  numerals,  corresponding  with  the  halves, 
quarters,  and  eighths,  into  which  the  trader  naturally  arranges 
his  merchandise.  I  would  favor  in  any  rational  way  the  refor- 
mation of  this  whole  subject,  so  as  to  have  an  octaval  system  of 
numbers,  octaval  subdivisions  of  weights  and  measures.  It  might 
be  a  good  thing  to  start  the  matter  by  an  octaval  system  of  ^veights 
and  measures  and  coinage,  leaving  the  arithmetic  to  follow.  But 
we  need  not  seriously  object  to  the  rising  of  the  sun,  and  so  we 
proceed  to  accommodate  our  work  to  coming  events.  To  facilitate 
necessary  computations  the  following  tables  are  added. 


252 


NAVAL   HYGIENE. 


[§312. 


X.  Metrical  Measures  of  Length,  compared  with  the  Pleasures  in 
most  Common  Use  in  the  United  States. 


Metrical.                   Inches. 

Feet 
of  12  inches. 

Yards 
of  36  inches. 

Miles 
of  1760  yards. 

Millimeter,    .     . 
Centimeter,    .     . 
Decimeter,     .     . 

0.03937 
0.39371 
3.93708 

0.0032809 
0.0328090 
0.3280899 
3.2808992 
3,280.89920 

0.0010936 
0.0109363 
0.1093633 
1.0936331 
1093.63310 

0.0000006 
0.0000062 
0.0000621 
0.0006214 
0.6213824 

Meter,  .... 
Kilometer,     .     . 

39.37079 
39,370.790 

1  inch  =  2  centimeters  .539954.                1  yard  =  0  meter  .914384. 
1  foot  =  3  decimeters  .047945.                  1  mile  =  1  kilometer  .609315. 

AT.  Measures  of  Surface. 


ISretrical. 

Square  feet 
of  144  sq.  inches. 

Square  yards 
of  9  sq.  feet. 

Acres  of 
4840  sq.  yds. 

Centiare,  square  meter, .... 
Are,  100  square  meters,      .     .     . 
Hectare,  100  are, 

10.76423 
1076.4299 
107,642.99 

1.1960 
11.9603 
1,196.033 

0.000247 

0.024711 
2.471143 

1  sq.  inch  =  6  centimeters  .451367.                 1  sq.  yard  =  0  meter  .836097. 
1  sq.  foot   =  9  decimeters  .289968.                  1  acre  =  0  hectare  .404671. 

§312.] 


APPENDIX. 


253 


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254 


NAVAL    HYGiENE. 


[  §  312. 


XIII.     Meusnres  of  WeiyJxt. 


Metrical. 

Grains. 

Troy  ounces 

of 
480  grains. 

Avoirdupois 

ounces  of 
43734  grains. 

Avoirdupois 

pounds  of 

7000  grains. 

Milligram, 

Centigram, 

Decigram, 

Gram, 

Kilogram, 

0.01543 

0.15432 

1.54323 

15.43235 

15432.3488 

0.000032 
0.000322 
0.003215 
0.032151 
32.150727 

0.000035 
0.000353 
0.003527 
0.035274 
35.273941 

0.000002 
0.000022 
0.000221 
0.002205 
2.204621 

1  grain  =  0  gram  .064799. 

1  ounce  avoirdupois  =  28  grams  .3496. 

1  troy  ounce  =  31  grams  .103496. 

1  pound  avoirdupois  =  0  kilogram  .453593. 

1  ton  of  coal  =  2240  pounds  =  1016  kilograms  .475. 

We  sometimes  find  quantities  stated  in  weights  and  measures 
that  we  are  not  used  to,  and  we  find  it  convenient  to  reduce  them 
to  others  by  these  tables.  For  instance,  the  exhibit  of  the  navy 
ration  (§  61)  begins  with  fourteen  ounces  of  biscuit,  and  if  we 
Avant  to  know  what  it  would  be  in  metrical  weight,  we  turn  to 
Table  XIII  and'  find  that  one  ounce  avoirdupois  equals  28 
grams  .35,  which  multiplied  by  fourteen  gives  396  grams  .9 
(397  grams) ;  and  proceeding  similarly  with  the  other  articles  of 
the  ration  the  table  stands  as  follows : 


§  312.  ] 


APPENDIX. 


255 


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256 


NAVAL    HYGIENE. 


[  §  312. 


Tlic  usual  niauner  of  .stating  the  chemical  impurities  of  water 
is  a  little  confusing,  unless  the  relative  value  of  these  weights  is 
kept  in  mind.  In  the  Report  of  the  ]Massachusetts  State  Board 
of  Health  for  1874,  there  are  tabular  statements  of  the  results  of 
analysis  of  the  water  of  the  various  lakes  and  rivers  of  the  State, 
and  the  proportions  are  given  in  parts  per  100,000,  and  in  grains 
per  United  States  gallon,  on  consecutive  pages ;  but  the  books  on 
this  subject  are  not  always  so  accommodating.  In  Parhe^s  Manual 
of  Hygiene  (edition  1878,  p.  61),  the  amount  of  certain  impuri- 
ties sufficient  to  impart  taste,  is  given  in  grains  per  imperial 
gallon ;  we  give  these  quantities  in  tabular  form,  with  the  cor- 
responding number  of  grains  per  United  States  gallon,  as  like- 
wise the  parts  per  thousand.  We  recommend  the  uniform  prac- 
tice of  writing  such  numerical  statements  in  parts  per  thousand, 
and  then  by  reading  more  or  less  of  the  figures  beyond  the  deci- 
mal point  as  whole  numbers,  we  will  say  parts  in  ten  thousand, 
parts  in  a  hundred  thousand,  or  parts  in  a  million : 


MAY   BE  TASTED   IN   WATER. 

Grains  per 
imperial  gallon 
=  70,000  grains. 

Grains  per 
U.  S.  gallon  = 
58328.887  grs. 

Parts  per 

1000  or  grains 

per  liter. 

Sodium  chloride,     .     .     . 

75 

62.5 

1.07143 

Potassium  chloride,      .     . 

20 

16.7 

0.28571 

Magnesium  chloride,  .     . 

55 

45.8 

0.78571 

Calcium  sulphate,    .     .     . 

30 

25. 

0.42857 

"         carbonate,  .     .     . 

12 

10. 

0.17143 

"         nitrate,  .... 

20 

16.7 

0.28571 

Sodium  carbonate,  .     .     . 

65 

54.2 

0.92857 

Iron,      

02 

.017 

0.00028 

This  may  be  read, — Sodium  chloride  is  ta.sted  in  water,  when 
in  the  proportion  of  one  part  per  thousand,  or  one  gram  per 
liter  ;  jxjtussium  chloride,  when  about  three  parts  in  ten  thou- 
.saiid  ;  magnesium  chloride,  when  seventy-eight  parts  in  one  hun- 
dred thousand  ;  iron,  when  three  parts  in  ten  millions,  or  twenty- 
eight  parts  in  a  hundred  millions,  if  we  Avish  to  be  so  exact. 

The  physician  of  the  future,  even  the  jjhysician  of  the  i)res- 
ent,  will  write  prescriptions  in  grams  and  centigrams;  he  will 
neglect  and  eventually  forget  the  grains  and  scruples,  and  these 
in  another  generation  will  become  matters  of  history  or  tradition, 


§  312.  ]  APPENDIX.  257 

like  groats,  four-pcuoe-ha'-pcnnies,  and  clcvcn-penuy-bits ;  the 
decigram,  the  milligraiu,  the  dekagram,  and  the  hectogram, 
though  occasionally  referred  to,  will  not  fare  much  better.  But 
for  the  present  we  need  simple  formalie  for  reducing  weights  of 
one  standard  to  the  other. 

We  have  but  to  remember  that  the  gram  nearly  equals  (15.4) 
fifteen  and  four-tenths  grains,  and  to  compute  all  the  rest  by 
simple  processes  of  mental  arithmetic : 

1  gram  ^  15.4  grains. 
10  centigrams  =  1.54  grains. 

1  centigram  =:  0.154  grain. 

1  kilogram  ^  15,400  grains,  =  2.2  ponnds. 

100  grains  =  6  grm.  .4,  six  grams,  four-tenths. 

10  grains  =  0  grm.  .64,  sixty-four  centigrams. 

1  grain  =  0  grm.  .064,  six  centigrams,  four  tenths. 

Instead  of  writing  the  abbreviation  grm.  between  the  whole 
number  and  the  decimal,  it  has  been  proposed  to  draw  a  line 
from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  paper,  as  the  accountant  rules 
his  books  for  dollars  and  cents;  and  if  we  choose  we  may  write 
grams  over  the  column  for  grams,  and  centigrams  over  the  centi- 
grams ;  just  as  you  would  distinguish  the  different  parts  of  a 
knife  by  writing  "  this  is  the  blade  "  on  one  part  and  "  this  is  the 
handle  "  on  another  part. 

This  all  looks  like  plain  sailing,  but  there  are  (50,000)  fifty 
thousand  physicians  in  the  United  States,  and  they  will  need 
fifty  thousand  lead-pencils  to  blacken  up  the  margins  of  their 
books  with  the  new  weights  till  the  printers  have  time  to  print 
them  new  books ;  the  fifty  thousand  apothecaries  will  need  fifty 
thousand  sets  of  new  weights;  and  this  will  encourage  the 
mining  of  copper,  and  zinc,  and  tin.  Who  is  to  pay  for  all  this  ? 
In  the  first  place  the  physician  and  the  apothecary  must  pay  ;  the 
sick  will  pay  the  physician  and  the  apothecary  with  interest. 
Some  of  those  supporting  the  sick  earn  their  livelihood  by 
making  lead-pencils,  some  by  printing,  and  some  by  mining,  so 
that  the  matter  moves  in  a  circle ;  with  some  individual  inconve- 
nience, the  result  is  convenience  and  comfort;  more  precision, 
more  safety  ;  just  weights,  just  measures ;  more  charity,  less  alms- 
giving ;  partial  evil,  universal  good. 

17 


AUTHORITIES. 


American  Journal  Medical  Science.— American  Journal  of  Medical  Sci- 
ence, new  series,  1841  to  1864.     Philadelphia,  Blanchard  &  Lea. 

Bell.— Dietetic  and  Medical  Hydrology.     Philadelphia. 

BoucHARDAT. — Annuaire  de  Therapeutique,  etc.     22eme  annee.     Paris,  1862. 

BOUDIN. — Etude  sur  le  Recrutement,  etc.  Annales  d'Hygiene,  xl,  268.  Paris, 
1849. 

Carpenter. — Use  and  Abuse  of  Alcohol. 

Chase. — Cincinnati  Lancet  and  Observer.     June,  1861. 

CoNDiE.— American  Journal  of  Medical  Science,  iv,  410.  Transactions  of  the 
College  of  Physicians. 

DuNGLisoN. — Human  Health. 

DuNGLisoN. — -Therapeutics. 

DuNON. — Etudes  sur  la  Verruga.     Paris,  1871. 

Farquharson. — Poisoning  by  seeds  of  Jatropha  curcas,  by  R.  J.  Farquharson, 
M.D.,  United  States  Navy.  American  Journal  of  Medical  Science,  xx, 
102.     July,  1850. 

FoNSSAGRiVES. — Traite  d'Hygiene  Navale,  par  le  Docteur  J.  B.  Fonssagrives, 
professeur,  etc.     Paris,  1877. 

Forget. — Naval  Medicine,  from  the  French  of  Forget.     London,  1835. 

FouRCAULT. — Comptes-Eendus.     Mars,  1844. 

Gamgee.— Dangers  of  Slaughtering  Diseased  Cattle.  London  Lancet,  Febru- 
ary, 1864. 

GoDMAN. — American  Natural  History,  by  John  B.  Godman,  M.D.  Philadel- 
phia, 1828. 

Hackluyt. — Collection  of  Voyages. 

Hamjiond. — A  Treatise  on  Hygiene,  with  Special  Reference  to  the  IMilitary 
Service,  by  William  A.  Hammond,  M.D.  Philadelphia,  J.  B.  Lippincott 
&  Co.,  1863. 

Holmes. — Puerperal  Fever  as  a  Private  Pestilence,  by  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes, 
M.D.     A  pamphlet.     Boston,  1855. 

Horner. — A  Cruise  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Hughes.— The  Natural  History  of  the  Island  of  Barbadoes,  by  the  Rev. 
Griffith  Hughes,  A.M.     London,  1750. 

Jameson. — Linnaan  Transactions.     November,  1860. 

Keller. — Trichinosis.  American  Journal  of  Medical  Science,  xlvii,  352, 
April,  1864. 


260  AUTHORITIES. 

Kneeland. — On  the  Contagiousness  of  Puerperal  Fever,  by  Samuel  Kneeland, 
Jr.,  M.D.,  of  Boston.     American  Journal  of  Medical  Science,  xi,  45. 

La  Roche. — Yellow  Fever,  Considered  in  its  Historical,  Pathological,  Etio- 
logical, and  Therapeutical  Relations,  by  R.  La  Roche,  M.D.,  etc.  Phila- 
delphia. 

Lallaigne. — L'Air  a  Differente  Hauteur,  oh  ont  respire  un  grand  nonibre 
d'hommes.     Annales  d'Hygiene,  xxxvi.     Paris,  1846. 

Larrey. — Surgical  Memoirs. 

LiND. — On  Scurvy.     London,  1757. 

LiND. — On  Hot  Climates :  An  Essay  on  the  Diseases  Incident  to  Europeans  in 
Hot  Climates,  with  the  Method  of  Preventing  their  Fatal  Consequences,  by 
James  Lind,  M.D.,  etc.     Philadelphia,  1811. 

Magendie. — Gazette  M^dicale.     Decembre,  1843. 

Medical  and  Surgical  Reporter. — Buffalo  Medical  and  Surgical  Reporter, 
edited  by  Julius  F.  Miner,  M.D.     1862. 

Mitchell. — Cryptogamic  Vegetation  the  Cause  of  Disease,  by  J.  K.  Mitchell, 
M.D.    Philadelphia,  1847. 

Parkes. — Manual  of  Practical  Hygiene,  1878. 

Peebles. — Facts  in  Relation  to  Epidemic  Erj'sipelas,  by  J.  F.  Peebles,  M.D. 
American  Journal  of  Medical  Science,  xi,  23.     1846. 

QuETELET. — Experiences  sur  la  Force  Musculaire.  Annales  d'PIygiene,  xii, 
204.     1834. 

Sanitary  Reports. — Sanitary  and  Medical  Reports,  published  by  authority 
of  the  Navy  Department. 

Salisbury. — Remarks  on  Fungi,  with  Experiments,  etc.,  by  J.  H.  Salisbury, 
M.D.  Newark,  Ohio.  American  Journal  of  Medical  Science,  xlvi,  17. 
July,  1863. 

United  States  Pharmacopceia. 

Wood. — A  Treatise  on  the  Practice  of  Medicine,  by  George  B.  Wood,  M.D., 
Professor,  etc.     Philadelphia,  Lippincott,  Grambo  &  Co.     1855. 


VOCABULARY. 


(The  most  important  technical  words  are  explained  in  the  body  of  the  work, 
and  may  be  found  by  reference  to  the  Index.) 

AcRO-NAECOTic. — Acrid  narcotic ;  causing  excitement  and  stupor,  or  coma. 

Anemia. — Poverty  of  blood. 

Anesthetic. — Privative  of  sensation,  either  of  the  sense  of  touch  or  of  the  sen- 
sation of  pain. 

Anthrax. — Carbuncle.     A  dangerous  and  painful  mortifying  sore. 

Apetala. — A  subdivision  of  exogenous  plants,  characterized  as  being  without 
petals.  Their  flower-leaves,  no  matter  how  brilliantly  colored,  are  con- 
sidered as  constituting  the  calyx  merely.     Section  205. 

Apoplexy. — A  sudden  failure  of  the  powers  of  life,  partly  characterized  by 
effused  blood,  or  great  congestion  in  the  brain.  An  epidemic  among  cattle, 
in  which  the  spleen,  or  melt,  is  somewhat  similarly  affected,  has  been 
called  splenic  apoplexy. 

Aromatic. — Possessing  fragrance,  as  the  spices. 

Banked  fires. — The  slow  fires  kept  under  the  boilers  of  steam-engines  when 
the  machinery  is  not  in  motion. 

Catalysis. — The  breaking  up  of  the  chemical  constitution  of  a  body  by  exter- 
nal force,  as  fire,  produced  in  various  ways. 

Chorea. — A  convulsive  disease,  generally  called  St.  Vitus's  dance. 

Cinchona. — The  Peruvian  bark. 

Coma. — An  appearance  of  profound  sleep  from  disease,  so  that  the  patient  can- 
not be  aroused. 

Contagion. — The  propagation  of  disease  by  contact,  either  direct  or  indirect, 
with  an  individual  already  affected  by  the  same  disease.  In  some  cases 
this  occurs  from  direct  bodily  contact ;  in  others  by  contact  with  solid  or 
liquid  excretions  of  the  sick,  or  by  emanations  from  the  sick  carried  by 
the  atmosphere.  Contagion,  infection,  malaria,  and  miasm,  are  often  im- 
properly used  synonymously. 

Cryptogamia. — The  grand  division  of  flowerless  plants — ferns,  mosses,  and 
mushrooms. 

Desiccated. — Thoroughly  dried. 

Diaphoretic. — Producing  cutaneous  perspiration. 

Emeto-cathartic. — Producing  or  causing  vomiting  and  purging. 

Empyreumatic. — Caused  by  the  action  of  fire.  Organic  matter  burned  in  closed 
vessels  produces  many  unpleasant  empyreumatic  substances. 


262  VOCABULARY. 

Endogens. — Endogenous  plants  are  characterized  by  having  the  wood  of  their 
stems  irregularly  disposed,  without  pith  in  the  centre,  or  concentric  layers 
of  growth ;  leaves  mostly  parallel-veined,  but  in  three  or  four  orders  a 
little  netted ;  young  plants  with  but  one  seed-leaf,  and  the  leaves  arranged 
alternately ;  the  parts  of  the  flower  mostly  in  threes,  never  in  fives. 

Enthetic. — Inoculated  diseases — those  diseases  caused  by  morbid  matter  ap- 
plied directly  to  a  sore,  or  abrasions  of  surface ;  the  word  is  commonly 
applied  to  contagious  sexual  diseases. 

Entozoon. — A  parasite  living  witliin  the  body. 

Epileptic. — Belonging  to  epilepsy. 

ExoGENS. — Exogenous  plants  are  characterized  by  having  stems  of  bark,  wood, 
and  pith ;  tlie  wood  growing  by  additions  to  its  surface,  so  as  to  form  con- 
centric annual  layers ;  the  leaves  net-veined ;  the  young  plants  with  two 
opposite  seed-leaves ;  the  parts  of  the  flower  mostly  in  fours  or  fives. 

Fractuee. — A  broken  bone. 

Galley. — The  cooking-stove  on  shipboard. 

Gangrene. — Mortification. 

Gastric. — Having  reference  to  the  stomach. 

Glumacea. — A  subdivision  of  endogenous  plants,  with  flowers  destitute  of  any 
proper  flower-leaves,  except  small  scales  or  bristles — chaff. 

Glumes. — Tlie  husky  scales  which  form  the  chafi^'  of  the  grain-bearing  plants 
and  grasses. 

Helmintha. — Worms. 

Hydropaths. — Hydropathists.  Persons  who  profess  to  believe  that  all  dis- 
eases are  best  cured  by  the  use  of  water  without  any  other  medicine. 

IcosANDRiA. — Of  twenty  anthers.  This  class  is  distinguished  from  polyandria 
(many  anthers)  not  so  much  by  the  number  of  anthers  as  their  mode  of 
attachment.  In  the  first,  the  anthers  being  attached  to  the  petals,  mostly 
five  in  number,  are  generally  a  regular  multiple  of  five ;  while  in  the  second 
class,  being  attached  to  the  receptacle,  they  are  much  more  irregular  in 
number,  though  not  necessarily  more  numerous. 

Infection.— The  influence  on  living  beings  of  material  capable  of  producing 
specific  disease,  whether  the  infecting  poison  be  solid,  liquid,  or  aeriform, 
and  whether  emanating  from  diseased  individuals  or  from  other  sources. 
This  term  differs  from  contagion,  as  it  includes  the  action  of  poisons  ema- 
nating from  other  sources  than  from  diseased  individuals ;  thus  we  have 
yellow  fever  infection  and  malarial  infection,  though  neither  yellow  fever 
nor  the  malarial  fevers  are  believed  to  be  contagious  diseases. 

Lethargy. — Drowsiness  gradually  becoming  more  heavy,  to  coma  and  death. 

Malaria. — Malarial  miasm.  The  poisonous  emanations  of  marshy  places, 
which  cause  the  intermittent  and  other  periodic  fevers. 

Miasm.  —  Miasma.  A  poison  of  unknown  composition  infecting  the  living 
body  through  the  atmosphere ;  as  small-pox  miasm,  yellow  fever  miasm, 
marsh  miasm. 

MoNOPETALA. — A  subdivision  of  exogenous  plants,  with  flowers  of  both  calyx 
and  corolla,  the  corolla  being  all  united  into  one  petal. 

Narcotic. — Causing  sleep  or  stupor. 

Nervous. — Referring  to  the  nerves  or  brain. 


VOCABULARY.  263 

Officinal. — Kept  in  the  shops  as  medicine. 

Petaloidea. — A  subdivision  of  endogenous  plants,  witli  flowers  not  collected 
on  a  spadix,  bvit  with  floral  envelopes  answering  to  the  calyx,  or  both  calyx 
and  corolla,  either  green  or  colored. 

Phagedenic. — Eating,  wearing  away. 

Plantar  arch. — The  arch  formed  by  the  bones  of  the  foot. 

Pleuropneumonia. — An  inflammatory  disease  of  the  lungs  and  side.  A  con- 
tagious cattle  disease  of  this  kind  occasionally  prevails. 

PoLYPETALA. — A  Subdivision  of  exogenous  plants  with  both  a  calyx  and  a 
corolla  of  several  petals. 

Prophylactic. — Protecting  against  disease. 

Puerperal  fever,  puerperal  peritonitis.  The  fatal  contagious  fever  of  lying- 
in  women. 

Purulent. — Of  pus,  the  matter  of  an  abscess. 

Saccharine. — Of  sugar. 

Satchel. — Haversack,  a  small  sack  to  be  carried  by  a  strap  over  the  shoulder. 

Sedative. — Tending  to  allay  irritation. 

Spadiciflora. — A  subdivision  of  endogenous  plants  with  flowers  on  a  spadix 
fleshy  axis ;  mostly  without  calyx,  or  corolla,  or  glumes  ;  leaves  sometimes 
net-veined. 

Sternum. — The  breast-bone. 

Stupor. — Drowsiness  less  profound  than  lethargy  or  coma. 

Sulks. — Nostalgia ;  homesickness.  This  term  is  principally  used  with  refer- 
ence to  African  slaves. 

Variola.    Small-pox. 

Vermifuge. — Worm-destroving. 


INDEX. 


Section. 

Section. 

Abelmoschns, 

.     169 

Apples,  dried,     . 

.       67 

Abuses, 

.       78 

Argemone, 

.     166 

Acacia, 

.     177 

Aracese, 

213,  220 

Accidental  shooting,  . 

.     242 

Aro,    .... 

.     214 

Acclimation, 

.     277 

Aromatic  drinks. 

20,  70,  105 

Acid,  sulphhydric, 

.       20 

Arrowroot, 

.     220 

Acidulous  drinks, 

.     106 

Articulata, . 

.     149 

Aconitum, . 

.     156 

Artificial  respiration. 

.       36 

Acorn  coffee, 

72,  105 

Arum, 

.     214 

Admiral's  cabin. 

5 

Asclepias,  . 

.     192 

Adulteration  of  liquors, 

.     101 

Asimina,    . 

.     164 

Advance  pay, 

.      31 

Asparagus, 

.     216 

Aerating  apparatus,    . 

.       95 

Asafcetida, . 

.     190 

Air,  impure. 

224,  286 

Asters, 

.     194 

Air  necessary  for  respiratic 

)n,     .     225 

Atmosphere, 

78,80 

Air-ports,   . 

.     224 

Atropa, 

.     204 

Airing  clotlies,   . 

.     236 

Atropia, 

.     201 

Albatross,  . 

.     135 

Attoley, 

.     109 

Alcohol  in  pharmacy, 

.     101 

Aurantiacere, 

.     170 

Alcoholic  drinks. 

99,  104 

Aves, .... 

.     131 

Alimentation, 

.     106 

Ayigato, 

.     205 

Alkekengi, 

.     204 

Bachelor's  pear, 

.     204 

Allspice,     . 

.     183 

Bacon, 

.     113 

Alligator  pear,   . 

.     205 

Bakers, 

.      63 

Almonds,    . 

.     181 

Balize, 

.     244 

Alum, 

87,92 

Barbadoes, 

.     246 

Ambulance  corps, 

.     241 

Barbarisms, 

13,  308 

American  Indians, 

.       52 

Barrels, 

11,97 

Ammonia  in  rain-water, 

.       86 

Batata, 

.     200 

Ammoniac, 

.     190 

Batavia,      . 

.     256 

Amphibious  carnivora. 

.     126 

Battle,  prepare  for,     . 

.     240 

Amusements, 

54,  59 

Beans,         .        .        .        1 

5,  118,  176 

Amygdalus, 

.     181 

Bear  meat. 

.     122 

Anacardiaceaj,    . 

.     172 

Bee-stinging, 

.     150 

Animal  food, 

.     129 

Beef,  .... 

.     128 

Animal  matter,  . 

.    284 

Beef,  dried, 

.     112 

Animalcular  theory,  . 

.     298 

Beef  in  fat. 

.     114 

Amnacete,  anone. 

160,  164 

Beef,  poisonous, . 

.     128 

Anthem  is,  . 

.     194 

Beef,  salted. 

.       64 

Antidote,  Bibron's,     . 

.     142 

Beer,  .... 

.     100 

Antiscorbutics, 

Belladonna, 

.    204 

68,  75,  107,  114,  1'. 

>6,  202,  264 

Bencoolen, . 

.     256 

Aloe,  .... 

.     214 

Bengal, 

.     256 

Apetala, 

.     205 

Berries, 

.     196 

Apocynese, . 

.     192 

Berth-deck, 

6 

Apoplexy,  splenic. 

.     128 

Berth-deck,  cleaning, 

.     232 

266 


INDEX. 


Section. 

Section 

Bibron's  antidote, 

.     142 

Cassava,      .        . 

.     209 

Bilge  pumps, 

15,  19 

Cassia,        .         .         .         . 

.     178 

Bilge-water, 

15,  20,  24 

Castor  oil,  .         .         .         . 

.     206 

Bilge-water  remedy,  . 

15,  21 

Catalysis,    .         .         .         . 

.     302 

Birds,  sea,  .         .        .         . 

.     135 

Cats  for  food. 

.     124 

Bitartrate  of  potassa, . 

.     108 

Cedar,         .         .         .         . 

.     211 

Bittersweet, 

.     202 

Celandine, .         .  •      . 

.     166 

Black  nightshade. 

.     203 

Celery,        .         .         .         . 

.     190 

Black  paint, 

.       28 

Centipede,  .         .         .         . 

.     150 

Black  snake-root, 

.     157 

Cephaelis,  .         .         .         . 

.     191 

Black  vomit. 

.     257 

Cerbera,      .         .         .         . 

.     192 

Bladder  fish, 

.     144 

Cetacea,      .         .         .         . 

.     130 

Blindness,  . 

.       66 

Chain  lockers,    . 

.       12 

Blood-root, 

.     166 

Chamomile, 

.     194 

Blower,       .         .         .         . 

.     145 

Cheerful  influences,    .      22 

2,  243,  308 

Blueberries, 

.     196 

Chelidonia, 

.     166 

Boarding-houses, 

.       31 

Chelonia,    .         .         .         . 

.     138 

Boat  duty,  .         .         .         . 

.     256 

Cherimaya, 

.     163 

Boat  expeditions, 

.     242 

Cherry,  ground, . 

.     204 

Boneset, 

.     194 

Cherry,  Jerusalem,     . 

.     203 

Boston  water, 

.       87 

Clierrv,  winter,  . 

.     204 

Botanic  medicine. 

.     195 

Chilblains,. 

.     237 

Botany, 

.     153 

Chloride  of  zinc, 

21,23 

Brackish  water, . 

25,87 

Chloride  of  lime. 

.       21 

Brandy, 

.     101 

Chloride  of  soda, 

.       21 

Brass-work, 

.       26 

Chocolate,  . 

60,  70,  105 

Bread, 

.       63 

Cholera  infantum. 

.     272 

Breakfast,  . 

.       78 

Cicuta, 

.     190 

Brick  cisterns,    . 

.       96 

Cider, 

.     100 

Brig  clearing, 

.     308 

Cimicifiiga, 

.    157 

Briony, 

,     188 

Cinchona,  . 

.     191 

Bromeliaceae, 

.     214 

Cincinnati  custard  apple, 

.     164 

Bronchocele, 

.     269 

Cinnamon, . 

.     205 

Bugbane,    . 

.     157 

Cirrhosis,    . 

.     104 

Bumboats, . 

.     221 

Cisterns, 

.      96 

Butter, 

.       74 

Cisterns,  leaden. 

.      98 

Buttercups, 

.     154 

Citric  acid, 

108,  265 

Cabbage,     . 

.     167 

CitruUus,    . 

.     188 

Cabin, 

4 

Citrus, 

.     170 

Cactus, 

.    184 

Clams, 

.     148 

Caffeine, 

.      71 

Cleaning,    . 

.     232 

Calabar  bean, 

.     192 

Cleanliness, 

259,  276 

Calamari,    . 

.     146 

Clematis,    . 

.     154 

Camel, 

.     129 

Clifton  water, 

.       89 

Camphor,   . 

.     205 

Climate,  sudden  changes  o 

f,    237,239 

Canned  meats,    . 

.     116 

Clothes,      . 

.       55 

Cantharis,  . 

.     149 

Clothes,  mending, 

.       59 

Canvas-back  duck. 

.     134 

Cloves, 

.     183 

Cape  de  Yerde  Islands, 

.     287 

Coal  ashes. 

.      23 

Capparis,    . 

.     168 

Cockles, 

.     148 

Caps,  .... 

.     237 

Cofl'ee,^    _  .  _      . 

62,  70,  191 

Capsicum,  . 

.     202 

Coffee  imitations. 

72,  105 

Carai,  yams, 

.     215 

Coffee-making,  . 

72,  237 

Carica  papaya,   . 

.     189 

Coffee  traffic. 

.       78 

Carnivora, . 

.     121 

Colchicum, 

.     217 

Carnivora,  amphibious, 

.     126 

Colocvnth, . 

.     188 

Carrot, 

.     190 

Color; 

.       28 

Caryophyllus,     . 

.     183 

Commendations, 

.    308 

Cashew, 

.     173 

Commission,  out  of,    . 

.     238 

Casks, 

11,  97 

ComposiUe, 

.     194 

INDEX. 

267 

Section. 

Section. 

Conduct  record,  . 

.     222 

Dioscorea,  . 

.     215 

Conc-estive  fever, 

.     263 

Dirt,    .     9,  11,  14,  17,  21,  26,  236,  259 

C'onif'oriP,    .         .         .         . 

.     211 

Disappointment, 

.     238 

C'oniuin,      .         .         .         . 

.     190 

Discharge,  honorable, 

32,  222 

Consumption, 

.     232 

Discipline, 

.     308 

Contagion, .    •     .         .27 

9,  293,  297 

Disinfectants, 

21,  71,  290 

Contagious  diseases,   .      27 

9,  284,  291 

Distillation  of  sea-water, 

.       95 

Convicts 

.       32 

Distilling  apparatus,  . 

.       63 

Convolvulus, 

.     200 

Dogbanes,  . 

.     192 

Cooking  utensils, 

.       26 

Dogs  as  food. 

.     123 

Copaiferse,  .         .         .         . 

.     177 

Dorema, 

.     190 

Copper,       .         .         .         . 

26,98 

Drainage,   . 

.       15 

Coptis, 

.     157 

Dress, 

.      55 

Cots, 

.     142 

Dress,  faults  of,  . 

.      57 

Courts-martial,    . 

.       32 

Dress  of  officers, 

.      58 

Courts,  summary, 

.     308 

Dress  of  sailors, 

.      55 

Cowhage,    .        .         .         . 

.     179 

Dried  apples. 

.      62 

Crabs,      _    .         .         .         . 

.     151 

Dried  beef. 

.     112 

Cranberries,         .         .         (j 

9,118,196 

Dried  fruits. 

62,  67 

Cream  of  tartar. 

.     108 

Drinking,  moderate,   . 

.     104 

Cresses,        .         .         .         . 

.     167 

Drinks,  acidulous. 

.     106 

Cretinism,  .         .         .         . 

.     270 

Drinks,  alcoholic. 

.     199 

Crew,           .         .         .         . 

33,  70 

Drinks,  aromatic. 

20,  70,  105 

Crocodiles, 

.     142 

Drinks,  farinaceous,    . 

.     109 

Croton  oil,  .         .         .         . 

.     208 

Drip-stone, 

.       93 

Croton  water, 

.      87 

Drowning,  .         .         .      3^ 

,  36,  37,  38 

Crowd  poison,     . 

.       82 

Drowning,  resuscitation, 

36,36 

Crowding,  .         .         .         . 

.       49 

Drunkard's  bloat, 

.     210 

Cruciferfe,  .         .         .         . 

.     167 

Drunkard's  breath,  etc., 

.     104 

Crustaceans, 

.     151 

Drunkenness,      .         .        i 

52,  105,  222 

Cryptogamia, 

.     219 

Drving-stoves,    . 

.     123 

Cryptogamic  theory,  . 

.     299 

Ducks, 

.     134 

Cucumbers, 

68,  188 

Duff,  .... 

65,  69 

Cucurbita, 

188,  220 

Dugong,      . 

.     130 

Culpee  fever, 

.    256 

Dulcamara, 

.     202 

Cummerbund, 

.       56 

Dynamometer,    . 

.       34 

Cura9oa, 

.     246 

Dysentery,  . 

.       56,  225 

Currants,     . 

.     118 

Dysentery,  malarial,  . 

.      87 

Custard  apples,   . 

160, 164 

Echinus  esculentus,    . 

.     152 

Cutaneous  exhalations, 

225,  285 

Eddos,  eddas,' 

.     214 

Cycas, 

.     212 

Efficiency,  . 

.    222 

Darnel, 

.     218 

Egg  plant, . 

.     202 

Date, 

.       62 

Eggs,           ... 

132,  136 

Date  fish,    .        .         .        . 

.     148 

Eiaterium, . 

.     188 

Datura,       .        .        .        . 

.     204 

Elements,   . 

.      79 

Daturia,      .         .         .        . 

.     201 

Elephant,   . 

.     129 

Death  presentiment,  . 

.       53 

Elephantiasis,     . 

.     271 

Death,  sudden,   . 

.     267 

Emys,  palustris. 

.     140 

Decimals,    . 

.     312 

Endemic  diseases. 

Decks,  wet, 

,     232 

252,  257,  2( 

51,  268,  297 

Delphinium, 

.     157 

Endogena,  . 

.     203 

Desiccated  vegetables. 

77,  112 

Engine-room, 

.       10 

Desiccated  potato, 

.      77 

Enthetic,     . 

.     283 

Desiccation, 

.      67 

Entozoa, 

.     152 

Desiccation  in  vacuo, 

.     112 

Epidemic  influences,  , 

.     247,  250 

Destination,  uncertain, 

.     238 

Epidemics,  .       225,  227,  2, 

55,  246,  278 

Detroit  water,     . 

.       87 

Epidemics,  causes  of,  .      2- 

19,  297,  302 

Digitalis,    .        .   *     . 

.     198 

Epidemics,  laws  of,     . 

.     250 

Dinner, 

.      78 

Ergot, 

.    306 

Diodon  Capensis, 

.     144 

Ericaceae,    . 

.     196 

268 


INDEX. 


Section. 

section. 

Erysipelas,          .        .      225, 

285,  292 

Fuligula  erytlirocephala,    .        .     134 

Erysipelas,  contagious, 

.     294 

Fungi, 

.     219 

Erysipelas,  prevention  of,  . 

.     296 

Gallapagos  turtle. 

.     141 

Eschscholtzia,     . 

.     166 

Galley  below. 

.       63,  228 

Eupatorium, 

.     194 

Gallinaceous  birds, 

.     132 

Euphorbiaceffi,    . 

206,  220 

Gambia  fevers,   . 

.     256 

Exhalations,  cutaneous. 

225,  285 

Gamgee,     . 

.     128 

Exogena,    .... 

.     153 

Garcenia,    . 

.     174 

Farina,        .... 

206,  209 

Garden  for  salad. 

.     119 

Farinaceous  drinks,    . 

.     109 

Gaultheria, 

.     196 

Fast,  protracted. 

.     109 

Geese, 

.     134 

Fastidious  appetites,  . 

.       72 

Geranium, 

.     171 

Fat, 

.     Ill 

Germ  theory. 

.     301 

Felis  borealis, 

.     124 

Glaucium, 

.     166 

Ferns,          .... 

.     219 

Glumacea, 

.     218 

Ferula,        .... 

.     190 

Glycyrrhiza, 

.     177 

Fever,  congestive, 

.     253 

Goitre, 

.     269 

Fever,  jail. 

.     287 

Goldthread, 

.     157 

Fever,  marsh,      .         .      244, 

246,  253 

Gossypium, 

.     169 

Fever,  typhoid,  . 

.     291 

Grallse, 

.     134 

Figs, 

.       62 

Granadillas, 

.     187 

Filiaria,      .... 

152,  274 

Grass, 

214,  218 

Filters,        .... 

.       93 

Grasslaoppers,     . 

.     149 

Filtration,  .... 

.       92 

Gratings  for  hatches. 

7 

Firearms,  accidents  from,  . 

.     242 

Green  paint, 

.       28 

Fish, 

.     143 

Green  turtle. 

.     139 

Fish,  poisonous, 

.     144 

Ground  cherry, . 

.     204 

Fixed  ideas. 

.       53 

Guava, 

.     183 

Flag  hoisting,     . 

.       30 

Guinea-worm,    . 

152,  274 

Flannel  belt, 

.       56 

Gulf  Stream, 

.     237 

Flannel  clothing. 

.       56 

Gumbo, 

.     169 

Flat-bottomed  ships,  . 

.      18 

Gun-deck, . 

5 

Flogging  abolished,    . 

.       32 

Gymnosperma,  . 

.     211 

Floor  of  the  shij). 

.       18 

Habits  of  sailors. 

.     222 

Flour,         .... 

.       65 

Hair  of  the  dog. 

.     105 

Food,.         ...          61 

,  79,  110 

Hall,  Marshall, . 

.       37 

Food  adulterations,     . 

.       73 

Hammock, 

14,42 

Food,  fresh,         .         .      118, 

245,  264 

Hams, 

1' 

13,  275,  297 

Food,  preservation  of. 

.     110 

Haras,  poisonous. 

.     275 

Food,  preservation  by  cold, 

.     117 

Hard  bread. 

63 

Food,  preservation  by  drying 

,    .     112 

Hardships, 

50 

Food  preserved  by  exclusion  of 

Hare, 

124 

air,      .... 

.     116 

Hats,  straw, 

57 

Food  preserved  by  oil. 

.     114 

Hatteras,   . 

206 

Food  preserved  by  salt. 

.     Ill 

Havana,    . 

236 

Food  preserved  by  smoking. 

.     113 

Havana  to  New  Yort 

J 

237 

Food  preserved  by  molasses. 

.     115 

Haversack, 

240 

Food  preserved  by  vinegar. 

.     115 

Hawksbill  turtle. 

138 

Food,  variety  of. 

.     264 

Heat,  excessive,  . 

10 

Food,  wholesome. 

.     264 

Heaths, 

196 

Forecastle, 

4 

Hellebore,  black, 

155 

Foxglove,   .... 

.     198 

Hellebore,  wiiite, 

217 

Fractures  on  sliipboard. 

.      47 

Hematoxylum,  . 

177 

Frencli  conscripts. 

.      52 

Hemlock,  poisonous. 

190 

Fresh  bread. 

.      63 

Henbane,  . 

204 

Fresh  provisions,         .      118, 

245,  264 

Hepatica,  . 

154 

Fruits,         .... 

62,  67 

Herbivorous  cetacean 

s, 

134 

P'ruits,  canned,   . 

.     116 

Herrings  in  oil,       '  . 

114 

Fruits,  dried. 

67,  102 

Hetstadt  poisoning,   . 

276 

Fruits,  fresh, 

.      69 

Hides, 

14 

INDEX. 

2G9 

Section. 

Section. 

Hippomane, 

.      210 

Key  West,  . 

.     257 

Ho.,^          .         .         . 

129,  176 

Kingston,  Jamaica,     . 

.     246 

Hold, 

9,11 

Kino, 

.     177 

Hold  stowage,    . 

.       11 

Labiatse,     . 

.     198 

Holystoning, 

.     232 

Lactucarium, 

.     194 

Home  news, 

.     245 

Lamantin,  . 

.     130 

Homesickness,   . 

.       32 

Landsmen, 

.       33 

Homesickness,  prevention 

of,     .       54 

Laplander, 

.       52 

Home,  up  anchor  for. 

.     236 

Larkspur,  . 

.     157 

Honey  bee. 

.     150 

Laurel, 

.     205 

Honorable  discharge. 

32,  222 

Laurel,  sheep,     . 

133,  196 

Horse-flesh, 

.     127,  129 

Lausen  epidemic. 

.     301 

Horse-radish, 

.     167 

Laziness,  caution. 

.     267 

Hospitals,   . 

13,  14 

Lead,  .... 

26,  98 

Hospital  gangrene. 

.     285,  292 

Leaky  ships. 

.      15 

Hospital  gangrene,  preven 

tion  of,  296 

Leathery  turtle,  . 

.     138 

Hura, 

.     210 

Leguminosse, 

.     176 

Hurricane  deck. 

4 

Lemon  family,    . 

.     170 

Hydatids,    . 

.     127 

Lemon-juice, 

68,  108 

Hydropathy, 

.       83 

Lemonade, . 

.     170 

Hydrophobia, 

.     156,  279 

Lettuce, 

.     194 

Hydrosulphuric  acid. 

.       20 

Leviticus  (xxi,  20 ;  xxii,  2 

2),     .     261 

Hyoscyamia, 

.     201 

Leviticus  (xiii,  2,  3,  4,  1 

I,  13; 

Hyoscyamus, 

.     204 

XV), 

.     282 

Ice,     .... 

.     117,  245 

Lewd  women, 

.     283 

Iguana, 

.     142 

Liberty  on  shore. 

32,  222 

Ilex,   .... 

.      71 

Lilies, 

.     216 

Illicium,     . 

.     158 

Limbers, 

.       17 

Improvement  of  sailors, 

.      31 

Lime-juice, 

68,  78,  265 

Impulse,  generous, 

.     223 

Lime-juice,  preserved, 

.     108 

Impure  air, 

.     224,  249 

Limeiras,     . 

.     272 

Impure  habits,    . 

.     222 

Limestone-water, 

.       89 

Impure  water,     . 

.      89 

Lind  on  malaria, 

.     256 

Indian  physic,    . 

.     182 

Liriodendron,     . 

.     159 

Indian  turnip,     . 

.     214 

Liverwort,  . 

.     154 

Indigo, 

.     180 

Lizards, 

.     142 

Influenza,   . 

.     246 

Lobelia, 

.     195 

Infusoria,    . 

.     152 

Lobsters,     . 

.     151 

Insects, 

.     149 

Lockers,  chain,  . 

.       12 

Inspectors,  sanitary,    . 

.     288 

Loganiacese, 

.     192 

Intermittents, 

87,  253 

Loggerhead  turtle. 

.     138 

Intoxication, 

.     104 

Logwood,    . 

.     177 

Invalids,     . 

.       33 

Loligo  vulgaris, . 

.     146 

Ipecacuanha, 

.     191 

Lolium, 

.     218 

Ipomaa, 

.     200 

London  water,    . 

.      87 

Iron,  .... 

.       25 

Long  ships, 

.       19 

Iron  ships. 

25,  27 

Lungs, 

.       80 

Iron  tank,  . 

11,  25,  96 

Lycopersicum,    . 

.     202 

Itch,   .... 

.     281 

Lynx, 

.     124 

Jail  fever,  . 

.     287 

Madagascar, 

.     256 

Jails,  .... 

.       82 

Madder,      .         .         ,         . 

.     191 

Jalap, 

.     200 

Magazines, 

9,  35,  40 

Jamestown  weed. 

.     204 

Magnolia,  .         .         .         . 

.     158 

Jatropha,    .         .         .         . 

206,  209 

Main  hold. 

.      11 

Jerked  beef, 

.     112 

Malaria, 

.     244 

Jerusalem  cherrv. 

.     203 

Malaria  in  new  soil,   . 

.     256 

Job  (xx,  11),      ■. 

.     282 

Malaria,  Lind  on, 

.     256 

Juniper, 

.     211 

Malaria  only  active  at  nigl 

t,      .     254 

Kalmia, 

.     133,  196 

Malarial  fevers. 

246,  253 

Kalo, 

.     214 

Malarial  fevers  at  Pensaco' 

a,      .     256 

270 


Malarial  fevers,  laws  of, 

Malarial  fevers,  prev 

Mallows, 

Man  overboard,  . 

MaiKjanilla, 

Manihot,  Manioca, 

Mangosteen, 

Marines, 

Marsh  fever, 

Marsh-water, 

Marshall  Hall,   . 

Materials  of  construction, 

Maypops,    . 

Meals, 

Measles, 

Meat,  dried. 

Meat  in  oil. 

Meat  in  vinegar, 

Meat,  preserved. 

Meat,  salted. 

Meat,  smoked,    . 

Meconopsis, 

Medical  survey,  . 

Medical  topography, 

Melanthacese, 

Meletta, 

Melongena, 

Melons, 

Mending  day,     . 

Merchant  ships. 

Mess  fund, 

Metals, 

Microscopes, 

Midshipmen, 

Mifflin,  Fort,       . 

Milk  sickness,     . 

Milk  weeds. 

Mineral  waters,  . 

Mint,  .       _ . 

Mississippi  Passes, 

Mittens, 

Molasses,    . 

MoUusks,    . 

Monkshood, 

Monopetala, 

Moral  influences. 

Morbus  pedicularis, 

Morellos,    . 

Morning  glory,  . 

Morning  work,   . 

Mortality,  average, 

Mud,  .   ■     . 

Mud  turtles, 

Mucuna, 

Mullein, 

Muscular  power, 

Muskrat, 

Mushrooms, 

Mussels, 

Mustard,     . 


INDEX. 

Section. 

Section. 

.     254 

Mustard  family. 

.      167 

2o5,  256 

Mutton,       .         .         .         . 

.     128 

.     1(59 

Myroxylon, 

.     177 

.       35 

Myrtus,       .         .         .         . 

.     183 

.     210 

Nasturtium, 

.     167 

20(5,  209 

Nausea,       .         .         .        . 

.      43 

163,  174 

Naval  hospital,  . 

.     237 

.       30 

Nicotiana,  .         .         .         . 

.     204 

.     253 

Nicotine,     .         .         .         . 

.     201 

87,  105 

Nightshade,  black,      . 

.     203 

.       37 

Nightsliade,  deadly,    . 

.     204 

20,25 

Nitrate  of  lead,   . 

21,23 

.     187 

Nitrogen,    . 

216,  284 

.       78 

Nitrogen  compounds, 

.      74 

225,  280 

Nostalgia,  .         .         .         . 

.      52 

.     112 

Nostalgia,  prevention  of,     . 

.      54 

.     114 

Numbers  (xxv). 

.     283 

.     115 

Nourishment,  deficient. 

.     287 

77 

Nutriment, 

.       79 

.     Ill 

Nutrition,   . 

79,82 

.     Ill 

Nux  vomica. 

.     192 

.     166 

Oatmeal, 

.    109 

.       33 

Objections  answered,  . 

63,78 

.     236 

Ocean, 

.       40 

.     214 

Oesophagus,  stricture. 

.     272 

.     144 

Ofiensive  cargo,  . 

.       14 

.     202 

Officer,  executive, 

.     227 

.     188 

Oil,  castor,  . 

.     207 

.       59 

Oil-cloth,  floor,   . 

.     232 

.       14 

Oil,  croton. 

.     208 

.       62 

Okra, 

.     169 

.       25 

Onion, 

.     216 

.     301 

Opuntia,     . 

.     185 

.     222 

Orange, 

,     170 

.      40 

Ordeal  nut. 

.     192 

.     273 

Organic  matter, . 

.      74 

.     192 

Orlop  deck. 

7 

.       88 

Outfit, 

.  1,48 

.     199 

Ovens, 

.      63 

.     244 

Overboard, 

.      35 

.     237 

Oxycoccus, 

.     197 

.       76 

Oxygen  in  respiration. 

.     225 

.     146 

Oysters, 

.     148 

.     156 

Pachydermata,    . 

127,  129 

.     191 

Painting,     . 

.       27 

48,57 

Palm  trees. 

.     213 

.     281 

Palmipedes, 

.     134 

.     204 

Pandemonium,   . 

.     222 

.     200 

Papaver,     . 

.     166 

.      78 

Paraguay  tea. 

.       71,  105 

.     227 

Parsley, 

.     190 

.       12 

Parsnips,    . 

.     190 

.     140 

Partridge  berry. 

.     196 

.     179 

Passerines, 

.     131 

.     198 

Passifiora,  . 

.     187 

.       34 

Patclung,    . 

.       59 

.     129 

Paulinia,     . 

.       71,  105 

.     219 

Pawpaw,     . 

.     189 

.     148 

Pear,  baclielor's, 

.     204 

.       62 

Pemmican, 

.     114 

INDEX. 

271 

Section. 

Section. 

Pen<?tiin,     .... 

.     135 

Pork, 

64,  271 

Percli,          .... 

.     144 

Potato,         .         .         .        77, 

118,  202 

Pernicious  fever, 

.     253 

Potato,  desiccated, 

.      77 

Perry,          .... 

.     100 

Potato  fiimily,     . 

.     201 

Persea,        .... 

.     205 

Potato  in  molasses. 

.     115 

Peru  balsam, 

.     177 

Potato,  raw. 

.     265 

Pestilence  and  famine. 

.     287 

Powder  magazine, 

9,  35,  40 

Petaloidea, 

.     214 

Presentiment  of  death. 

.      53 

Pheasant,  poisonous,  . 

133,  196 

Preservation  of  stores, 

8 

Philadelphia  water,    . 

.       87 

Preservation  of  food,  . 

.     110 

Phinehas,   .... 

.     283 

Preserved  meat. 

.     184 

Pholas,        .... 

.     148 

Prickly  pear. 

.     184 

Phvsalia,    .... 

.     152 

Prisons,       .... 

.    308 

Physalis,     .... 

.     204 

Promenade, 

3 

Plivsostigma, 

.     192 

Prophylactic,  universal. 

.     259 

Pickles,       .... 

68,  115 

Protozoa,    .... 

.     152 

Pig's  feet,   .... 

.     115 

Provisions,  fresh. 

.     245 

Pine, 

.     211 

Proverbs  (xxxi,  1,  3,  4), 

100,  221 

Pineapple, 

.     214 

Proverbs  (xii,  4), 

.     282 

Pink  root,  .... 

.     193 

Proverbs  (xx,  1), 

.     175 

Pinoli,         .... 

.     109 

Proverbs  (xxiii). 

.     175 

Pisces,         .... 

.     143 

Proverbs  (xxxiii,  1,  2,  20,  35 

),  .     100 

Pisidiiim,    .... 

.     183 

Prussic  acid, 

.     181 

Pitava,        .... 

.     186 

Pterocarpus, 

.     177 

Pitch,          .... 

.       29 

Puerperal  fever. 

.     285 

Pitcher  plant,      . 

.     165 

Puerperal  fever,  contagious. 

.     296 

Pitching  motion. 

.      40 

Puerperal  fever,  prevention. 

.     296 

Plague,        .... 

225,  249 

Puffer,         .... 

.     145 

Plague  in  London, 

251,  289 

Pump,         .... 

12,  15 

Pleuropneumonia, 

.     128 

Pump,  bilge. 

16,  19 

Plica  polonica,    . 

.     268 

Pump  well. 

.      17 

Poison  beans. 

.     192 

Pumpkin,    .... 

.    188 

Poison  vine, 

.     172 

Punica,        .... 

.     183 

Poisoned  water,  . 

89,98 

Punishments, 

32,  309 

Poisoning  by  aconite, 

.     156 

Pvrola,        .... 

.     196 

Poisoning  by  bad  water,     . 

.       89 

Quarantine,         .      232,  235 

258,  302 

Poisoning  by  beef. 

.     128 

Quarantine  in  the  Levant,  . 

.     290 

Poisoning  by  dulcamara,    . 

.     202 

Quinine,      .         .         .      159, 

191,  290 

Poisoning  by  jatropha  curcas 

,     .     209 

Kadiata,      .... 

.     152 

Poisoning  by  pork, 

.     271 

Radishes,    .... 

.     167 

Poisoning  by  spigelia. 

.     193 

Rags,           .... 

15,59 

Poisoning  by  tiger  lily. 

.     216 

Rail, 

.     134 

Poisoning  by  toad  fish. 

.     144 

Raisins,       .... 

62,67 

Poisonous  atmosphere. 

.     284 

Ranunculus, 

.     154 

Poisonous  beef,  . 

.     128 

Rapacious  birds. 

.     131 

Poisonous  birds. 

.     133 

Ration,        .... 

.       61 

Poisonous  exhalations, 

225,  284 

Ration,  undrawn. 

.       62 

Poisonous  fish,    . 

143,  211 

Rats, 

.     129 

Poisonous  germs, 

.     225 

Ready  method,   . 

.       37 

Poisonous  insects, 

.     149 

Receiving  ships. 

.       33 

Poisonous  meat,  .      128,  133, 

273,  276 

Ricinus,      .... 

.     207 

Poisonous  plants. 

.     220 

Recruits,     .... 

30,34 

Poisonous  vermifuge, 

.     193 

Recruits,  examination, 

.      34^ 

Polypetala, 

.     154 

Redhead  duck,   . 

.     134 

Pomegranate, 

.     183 

Red  pepper. 

.     202 

Ponds,         .... 

.       90 

Refitting,    .... 

.     238 

Poop  deck, 

4 

Regulations, 

.     255 

Poppy 

.     166 

Remittent  fever. 

246,  253 

Pops, 

.     204 

Rendezvous, 

30,32 

Porcelia,     .... 

.     162 

Reptilia,     ..... 

.     137 

272 

INDEX. 

Section. 

Section 

Eeservoirs  of  lead, 

.        98 

Sea  porcupine,    , 

.     145 

Kespiration, 

80,  225 

Sea  serpents. 

.     142 

Respiration,  artificial, 

.       37 

Sea-sickness, 

.      43 

Rewards  and  punishn] 

ents,          .     309 

Sea-sickness,  causes,    . 

.       45 

Rhododendron,  . 

.     196 

Sea-sickness,  remedies, 

.       46 

Rlins  toxicodendron. 

128,  172,  273 

Sea-voyages  as  a  remedy,   . 

.       47 

Rice,  . 

.       66 

Sea  turtles. 

.     138 

River-water, 

.       87 

Seal  flesli,   .... 

.     120 

Robin, 

.     131 

Seamen  [v.  Sailors),    . 

.     222 

Rodents, 

.      127,  129 

Secale  cornutum. 

.     218 

Rolling  of  the  sliip, 

.       40 

Senegal  fever,     . 

.     256 

Rosacese,     . 

.     181 

Senna,         .... 

.     178 

Rubia, 

.     191 

Serpents,     .... 

.     142 

Rum, 

77,  79 

Sewers,        .... 

.       89 

Rum,  medicinally, 

.     100 

Sheathing  copper, 

.       26 

Rum,  useful, 

.     101 

Sheep,  laurel. 

.     133 

Ruminants, 

.     127,  129 

Ship,  ahoy. 

.       51 

Rye,  diseased,     . 

.     218 

Ship  fever, 

.     288 

Sacrificios  Island, 

.     221 

Ships,  emigrant. 

.       82 

Saifron,  meadow. 

.     217 

Ships,  flat-bottomed,  . 

.       18 

Sago  plants, 

.     212 

Ship's  form. 

2 

Sail,  ho. 

.       51 

Ships,  large. 

.     227 

Sail-rooms, 

9 

Ships,  long. 

.       19 

Sailors, 

.       30 

Ships,  merchant. 

.       14 

Sailors,  improving,     . 

.       32 

Shrimps,     .... 

.     151 

Sailors  on  liberty, 

.     222 

Sick-bay,    .... 

.       14 

Sailors,  scarcity  of. 

.       14 

Sirenia,       .... 

.     130 

Salad  garden, 

.     119 

Skin, 

.       81 

Salamander, 

.     142 

Slave  trade. 

.       54 

Salt  meat,   . 

.     Ill 

Sleeping  arrangements. 

.       42 

Sanitary  measures. 

.     235,  255 

Sleeping-place,   . 

5 

Sandbox  tree. 

.     210 

Small-pox,          .         .      233, 

279,  303 

Sand  island  water. 

.       91,  243 

Small  stores, 

55,  59 

Sanguinaria, 

.     166 

Smell,  the  sense. 

.     227 

Santa  Rosa  Island, 

.     243 

Smoked  meat,     . 

.     113 

Sardines,     . 

.     114,  144 

Snails,         .... 

.     147 

Sarracenia, 

.     165 

Snake-root,  black. 

.     157 

Sassafras,    . 

.     105,  205 

Snakes,       .... 

.     142 

Sash,  . 

.      56 

Snapping  turtle, 

.     140 

Sausage  in  fat,    . 

.     114 

Snipe,          .... 

.     134 

Sausage,  poison, 

.     275,  297 

Snow-water, 

.       86 

Scabies, 

.     261,  281 

Social  relations, . 

.      48 

Scammony, 

.     200 

Solania,       .... 

.     201 

Scansores,  . 

.     131 

Solanum,    .... 

202,  220 

Scilla, 

.     216 

Solitude  of  the  ocean. 

.       51 

Scomber,     . 

.     144 

Sorghum,    .... 

.     218 

Scorbutus,  . 

68,  167,  261 

Soup,  preserved  in  cans, 

.     116 

Scorbutus,  its  causes, 

.     262 

Soursop,      .... 

.     162 

Scorbutus,  prevention 

(v.  Anti- 

Soutliwest  Pass,  . 

.     244 

scorbutic). 

.    304 

Spadiciflora, 

.     213 

Scorbutus,  symptoms. 

.     263 

Spanish  mackerel. 

.     144 

Scorpions,  . 

.     150 

Spar-deck,  .... 

3 

Scrofulariacese, 

.     198 

Sparus,        .... 

.     144 

Scurvy, 

.     261 

Spargus  coreacea. 

.     138 

Scurvy  grass, 

.      167,  265 

Spices,         .... 

.     183 

Sea  birds,    . 

.     135 

Spiders,       .... 

.     149 

Sea  cow. 

.     130 

Spigclia,      .... 

.     193 

Sea  egg,      . 

.     152 

Spirit-room, 

9 

Sea  legs,      . 

.     141 

Spirit-room  ventilation. 

.     231 

Sea  oscillations, 

.       40 

Spirits,         .... 

.       99 

INDEX. 


273 


Spottecl  fever, 

Sprin<;-w:iter, 

Spur<>'C', 

Sqiiasli, 

Squill, 

St.  Thomas  fever, 

Staggers,     . 

Stagnant  water,  . 

Star  aniseed, 

Staterooms, 

Statisties,  medical, 

Stavesacre, . 

Steanisliips, 

Stop-cocks, 

Store-rooms, 

Stoves,  drying,    . 

Stowage  of  hold, 

Stramonium, 

Strong  drink, 

Strychnia,  . 

Sugar, 

Sugar  canes, 

Sulks, 

Sulphate  of  iron, 

Sulphide  of  hydrogen 

Sumac  fomily,     . 

Sunmiary  courts, 

Sumter,  a  piratical  vessel 

Sunflower,  . 

Supper, 

Surinam,     . 

Sweat  boxes. 

Sweet  potatoes,   . 

Swiss, 

Sylvester's  method, 

Syphraena  becuna. 

Syphilis, 

Syphilis,  how  avoided 

Tanks,  iron. 

Tape-worm, 

Tapioca, 

Tar,    . 

Tarantismus, 

Tare, . 

Tartaric  acid, 

Tea,    .         . 

Tea-making, 

Temperature,  sudden  clian 

Terrapins,  . 

Test  of  ventilation, 

Testudo, 

Theine,       . 

Theories,    . 

Thirst, 

Thornapple, 

Timothv  (iv,  23), 

Toad  fish,   . 

Toadstools, 

Tobacco, 

Tolu  balsam. 


20,  87 


Section. 

.     2.S7 
,SS 

.    2U(; 

.     188 

.     21G 

.     ^Sti 

273 

105 

158 

() 

.     307 

.     157 

.       10 

.       10 

.    7,  8 

.     232 

.       11 

128,  204 

99,  104 

.     192 

.       70 

.     218 

252,  254 

.       21 

.       20 

.     172 

32,  308 

.     24(5 

.     194 

.       78 

.    304 

.       13 

.     200 

.       52 

.       38 

.     144 

.     282 

.     283 

11,  25,  96 

.     127 

206,  209 

.       29 

.     277 

.     214 

.     118 

62,  70,  105 

.      71 

es.  237,  239 

.     140 

.     227 

.     141 

.      71 

.     297 

.       84 

.     204 

.     100 

.     144 

.     219 

60,  204 

.     177 


152, 


Si'Ctiiiii. 

.  202 
.  808 
.  240 
.  241 
.  236 
297 
127,  275 
.  246 
.  219 
.  159 
.  132 
.  167 
.  138 
87,  275 

2,  225,  284 
.  286 
.     288 

mtine,  290 
.     190 


Tomato, 

Tortures,  barbarous,   . 

Tourniquet, 

Transportation  of  woundci 

Treason, 

Trichina  spiralis,         .      12 

Trichinosis, 

Trinidad  de  ('ul)a. 

Truffle, 

Tulip  poplar, 

Turkey, 

Turnip, 

Turtle, 

Tvphoid  fever,    . 

TVphus,      ...        8 

Typhus,  causes  of. 

Typhus,  prevention, 

Typhus,  prevention  by  quar 

Umbelliferve, 

Undershirts, 

Undrawn  rations. 

Upas, 

Uvaria, 

Vagabondism,     . 

Vapor  of  tar, 

Varnish, 

Vegetable  decomposition. 

Vegetables,  fresh. 

Venereal  disease. 

Venomous  serpents,    . 

Ventilation, 

Ventilation  bellows,   . 

Ventilation,  defective 

Ventilation  fan, . 

Ventilation  flues. 

Ventilation  by  fires,   , 

Ventilation  by  heat  of  engine, 

Ventilation  by  sjiils, 

Ventilation,  improvement. 

Ventilation  in  calm  weathc 

Ventilation,  neglected. 

Ventilation  of  clothing. 

Ventilation  of  hold. 

Ventilation  of  lower  deck; 

Ventilation  of  orlop. 

Ventilation  of  sailing  ship: 

Ventilation  of  spirit-room 

Ventilation  of  steamers, 

Ventilation  windsails. 

Ventilator,  Wittig,     . 

Vera  Cruz, 

Veratrum,  . 

Verbascum, 

Vermifuge, 

Verrugas,   . 

Vin  de  campagne,       .         .         .     108 

Vinegar,     .         .         .  68,  77,  107 

Vines, 175 

Virchow, 298 

Virgin's  bower 154 


.   56 

.  62 
.  192 
.  164 
.  50 
.  29 
.  172 
.  20 
.   62 

222,  282 
.  142 
224,  226,  286 
.  229 
.  227 

230,  231 
8,228 

228,  229 
228 
226 

.  228 
.  227 

229,  231 
.  286 

11,  228,  231 
.  228 
.  228 
.  226 
.  231 
.  228 
.  227 
.  229 
221 
'.  217 
.  198 
rO,  193 


18 


274 

INDEX. 

Section. 

Section. 

Vitis  vinifera,     . 

175 

Weights  and  measures, 

Appendix,  310 

Walnuts,     .... 

118 

Well  water. 

.       89 

Walrus  beef, 

126 

Whales, 

.     130 

Wardroom, 

6 

Whisky,      . 

77,99 

Water,        .... 

83 

Whisky,  useful,  . 

.     101 

Water,  aeration. 

95 

White  "bloat, 

.     104 

Water,  bilge. 

20 

White  paint. 

.       28 

Water  birds. 

134 

Whortleberries, . 

.     196 

Water,  boiled,    ...       9 

4,  274 

Wind, 

.     225 

Water,  brackish, 

25,87 

Windsails, . 

.     227 

W^ater  casks. 

11 

Wine, 

99,  175 

Water,  Clifton,   . 

89 

Wine,  acid. 

.     108 

Water,  Croton,  etc.,    . 

87 

Wine,  adulterations,  . 

.     103 

Water,  distilled, 

63,  95 

Wine,  medicinally,     . 

.     100 

Water-drinkers, 

85 

W^ine,  of  good  quality. 

.     103 

Water  filters. 

93 

Wine,  socially,   . 

.     104 

Water,  in  brick  cisterns,     . 

96 

W^olfsbane, 

.     156 

Water,  in  lead,  . 

98 

Wood, 

.       20 

Water,  in  iron,  . 

96 

W^oodcock, 

.     131 

Water,  in  wooden  casks,     . 

.       97 

Wooden  water  cases,  . 

.       97 

Water,  limestone, 

89 

Woody  nightshade,    . 

.     202 

Water,  marsh,    ...        9 

0,105 

Woorari,     . 

.     192 

Water,  mineral, . 

88 

Worm  tea, . 

Water,  muddy,  . 

244 

Worms, 

."     149 

Water,  of  large  cities, 

87 

Wounded  men,  . 

.     240 

Water,  of  sand  islands,       .       i 

1,243 

Wounded  men,  transportat 

ion 

,  .     241 

Water,  proportion  in  tissues. 

84 

Wounds,  gunshot, 

.     242 

Water,  purification,    . 

92 

Yams, 

118,  215 

Water,  rain. 

86 

Yellow  fever,  10,  221,  236, 246, 

257, 301 

Water,  river. 

'87,9 

2,244 

Yellow  fever  at  Norfolk,  etc.. 

.     257 

Water,  sea. 

20 

Yellow  fever,  laws  of 

develop- 

Water,  selection, 

85,91 

ment. 

.     257 

Water,  snow, 

86 

Yellow  fever,  no 

t  contagious. 

.     257 

Water,  spring,    . 

88 

Yeoman,     . 

7 

Water,  stagnant. 

".       9 

0,  105 

Zamia, 

.     212 

Water  tanks, 

11,25 

Zenker, 

.     298 

Water,  well, 

89 

Zinc,  . 

.      98 

Watermelon, 

, 

.    188 

Zymotic  theory, 

.     301 

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